chapter 7: deities and places of worship

Transformation Mask

Kwakiutl, British Colombia

1900s

painted wood

• built special houses for winter ceremonies

• performers in full masquerade told stories

• during performance: character transforms from human to supernatural being

• intent: make humans fear supernatural

humans try to reach divine realm through:

rituals

oral tradition

sacred writings

meditation

prayer

music

art

Hammurabi Stele

Susa (modern Iran)

1792—1750 BCE

• King Hammurabi commanded to record the law by justice god Shamash, sun god

simple geometric shapes often symbolize God; Islam, Hinduism, Christianity

Islamic: sphere + dome = heavens/oneness of god

Hindu: circle = unknowable Supreme Being

Christianity: triangle = Holy Trinity

animal features/natural phenomena symbolizing deities:

sun = God

lamb = Jesus

dove/fire = Holy Spirit

• other religions are animistic; natural elements, animals as deities

God is not pictured in many religions; African religions, Hindu, Islamic

African religions + Hinduism = completely unknowable Supreme Being

Islam: Allah is never depicted

Snake Goddess

Minoan (Crete)

1600 BCE

glazed earthenware

• male + female regenerative powers of snake shedding its skin

• likely evolved from the Earth Mother

→ open bodice + breasts = early fertility goddesses

→ leopard-like animal on head = royalty

→ tiered dress + hairstyle = Minoan fashion

animism

all forces of nature = inhabited by spirits

• rock/tree can be carved into an image to bring out natural force

• ex: Venus of Willendorf; believed to contain spiritual force of procreation, important aid to ancient fertility rituals

polytheism

belief in many gods

the Earth Mother

first of the polytheistic gods

• giver of life

• carrier of death

ancient myths: this goddess existed first

Gaia

Ancient Greek version of Earth Goddess

• gods of Olympus were her descendants

Zeus (or Poseidon)

460—450 BCE (Classic Greek period)

bronze

• larger than life, ideal proportions/musculature

• wdk if Zeus or Poseidon bc he’s missing whatever he was holding

The Goddess Hathor and the Overseer of Sealers, Psamtik

Saqqara, Egypt (late 26th dynasty)

600—500 BCE (6th century BCE)

gray stone

• cow goddess Hathor hovers protectively over Psamtik, an Egyptian official

• Hathor identified by horns surrounding head of cobra, sign of royalty

• combo of horns and sun disk symbolize divinity

Xilonen, Goddess of Young Corn

Huastec, Tuxpan

1000—1200

limestone

• rounded head, humanlike; grand

ways Tlaloc, rain deity from Mesoamerica, was depicted:

circular eyes

twisted serpent nose

fanged mouth

headdress

large ear ornaments

flattened features rendered as geometric shapes

pantheism

belief that a divine spirit pervades all things in the universe

Hinduism

appears to have numerous gods, but it is pantheism, rather than polytheism

• all their gods are manifestations of “avatars” of a divine universal spirit: Brahman, the Unbounded

Shiva

avatar of Brahman; “Lord of the Dance”

• good and evil

• male and female

• unity in which all opposites meet

• destroys and creates life

• terrible and mild at same time

Brahman

one pure being of pure intelligence and delight; unknowable

Shiva as Nataraja

Punjab, India

1000

bronze

• dancer-like sleek body

• eternal stillness

• mudra (hands): sign of protection

• left foot elevated in dance = release from the earth

• circle of fire around Shiva shows unfolding/transformation of universe + its destruction

Buddhism

follows teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, aka Sakyamuni

(offshoot kinda of Hinduism)

Buddha represented as set of symbols after his death; never human UNTIL later

later in Buddhism: founder depicted as Buddha, the Enlightened one

stupa

mound tomb → monument containing ashes/relics of a Buddha

• symbol for Sakyamuni/Buddha; sign of death + attainment of nirvana

• toranas = 4 gates at 4 cardinal directions

• square enclosure on top of dome = heavens

Great Stupa

Sanchi, India

400 BCE — 100 CE

dome

toranas

four heraldic gates around the stupa; at 4 cardinal directions

chatras

mast w/ umbrellas = united world w/ above paradise

signifies levels of human consciousness that human souls ascend thru to enlightenment

identifying traits of Buddha

lotus pose

long earlobes

tall, arched brows

quiet mouth

serenity

abstracted foliage = Tree of Enlightenment

Seated Buddha

Sarnath, India

500—650 CE

sandstone

• Buddha = weightless body

• perfect oval face

Bodhisattvas

living beings who have attained Buddhahood but chose to remain on earth to help others

• ex: Guanyin (in China)

  • depictions vary greatly: sometimes fem, sometimes masc; sometimes 2 arms, sometimes 12 arms; etc

monotheism

belief in one god; there is no other

The Water and Moon Guanyin Bodhisattva

Song Dynasty, China

1100

painted wood statue

• living Buddhist person who is Enlightened but remains on earth to help others towards Enlightenment

why early Christian/Jewish art is rare:

thought that making images of god violates 2nd Commandment (idolatry)

Synagogue at Dura-Europos

Syria

245—256 CE

• paintings illustrate Hebrew Bible stories

• figures: stylized gestures, lack expression/mass/depth

• stand in frontal rows; action not depicted

• Yahweh depicted as just a hand

Christianity’s depictions of Jesus:

shephard

royal ruler

miracle worker

judge

teacher

beautiful child

dying man

Madonna of the Meadow

Raphael Sanzio (Italy)

1505

oil on panel

• Jesus in center; St. John the Baptist on the left

• cross = roles of savior and prophet

• Mary and children = triangle composition = Trinity

• Mary completely contains form of Jesus = mother

Isenheim Altarpiece

Matthias Grünewald

1510—1515

oil on wood

• consoled hospital patients; Jesus relates in suffering

Islam

founded by Mohammed in 7th century Arabia

Koran = complete submission to Allah (same deity as Judaism/Christianity)

• images of Allah are forbidden

• prophet Mohammed sometimes shown in art

Mohammed's Ascent into Heaven, from Nizami’s Khamsa (Five Poems)

Safavid Dynasty, Iran

1539—1543

• Mohammed ascends into heaven w/ angels

retablos

votive paintings in Central Mexico; offerings left at important religious shrines

Retablo of Maria de la Luz Casillas and Children

1961

Central Mexico

oil on metal

• Maria depicted twice: supplicant w/ her children & helpless/vulnerable patient

• Virgin of San Juan in gray room w/ golden rays

• lack of details to emphasize Virgin’s power vs. Maria’s helplessness

Offering with Cili-Shaped Crown

1985

flowers, fruit, palm leaves

• Balinese commemorate religious days by giving handmade offerings

• offerings = artworks

• religion + art integrated in everyday life

sacrifices

various religious blood sacrifices through the ages

• Judeo-Christian religions have history of blood sacrifice

• ex: Abraham preparing to kill son Isaac but last minute was allowed to substitute w/ a ram

Sacrifice of Isaac

Lorenzo Ghiberti

Florence, Italy

1401—1402

gilded bronze

• ultimate test of faith

• Isaac’s nude body = sacrifice

Shield Jaguar and Lady Xoc

Mayan; Mexico

750

relief

• bloodletting ceremony

• Mayan ruler holds torch over principal (#1) wife

• pulls thorny rope through hole in her tongue

prayer

vehicle of communication between humans and gods

kachinas

spirits of the dead; dwell in community for 6 months

• by Hopis people of North America

• small doll sculptures of kachinas = form of prayer

  • used to educate children; gifted to women as fertility

colors = sacred directions

• blue/green = north

• yellow = west

• red = south

• east = white

• heavens = multicolored

Power Figure (Nksi n’kondi)

Kongo, Zaire

1998

wood, nails, blades, medicinal material w/ cowrie shell

• power released by shamans by hammering nails into it

• figure is activated when medicinal herbs placed in back of head

artistic mappings of the cosmos show:

origin of the world

structure of universe

spiritual beings

humans in relation to gods

diagrams of time

Ahola Kachina

Jimmie Kewanwytewa (Hopi)

1942

cottonwood, paint, feathers, wool

• doll figures = prayer for welfare of community + teaching aid for youths

Ceiling of the Sistine Chapel

Michelangelo

1508—1512

fresco

• Michelangelo = primarily a sculptor; frustrated w/ commission requirements

Mandala of Samvara (Kharamukha Cakrasamvara Mandala)

Tibet

1500s

water-based pigments on cotton cloth

• circle = void before creation

• deity will appear in empty void

• deity Samvara sets universe into motion

  • red = common color of Tibetan mandalas

  • blue = lapis lazuli (expensive; commissioned by wealthy patron)

mandala

map of structure of cosmos

• belief that physical + spiritual worlds = uninterrupted whole of continually fluctuating energy states

towards inner circle = stages of increasing enlightenment

purposes of places of worship:

to shelter congregation

house sacred objects

incorporate elements of nature

incorporate symbolic geometry

be sites of sacred ceremonies/pilgrimages

Ark of the Covenant

Hammath (near Tiberias)

400—500 CE (4th century)

mosaic

• Judaism: most holy structure; tabernacle for holding sacred objects

Ziggurat at Ur

3rd Dynasty of Ur (Iraq)

2150—2050 BCE

• sacred artificial mountain built by Sumerians of Ur to honor special deity

• “ziggurat” = “mountain”/“pinnacle”

• tower seems to reach into the heavens (surrounded by flat land; contrast)

natural places of worship:

mountains (heaven meets earth)

springs (sustain life)

sacred trees (truth; underworld/world/heavens)

groves

fire/light/sun

Shinto religion (Japan):

forests, big stones = sacred dwellings of gods of nature “Kami”

• Kami are called upon to enter the shrine

• powers are worshipped + asked for aid

Main Shrine at Ise

Japan

685

cultures use geometry/symmetry to symbolize:

divinity

totality

perfection

timelessness

Stonehenge

Wiltshire, England

2000 BCE

upright stone lintel altar

• astronomical device; maps solar/planetary movement

• marks midsummer solstice; essential to agrarian/agricultural civilization

Pantheon

Rome

118—125 CE

concrete and marble

• oculus: hole in top; creates shaft of sunlight illuminating interior

• entire structure is symmetrical; loftiness, simplicity, balance = divine

Shrine to Vairocana Buddha (the biggest one)

Longmen Caves in China (thousands of sacred Buddha statues)

600—650 CE

natural rock carving

• universal; dominates all life and everything else

• attended by demons/lesser Buddhas; model used to justify rule of tyrant emperors

Notre Dame du Haut

Le Corbusier (France)

1950—1955

church

• outdoor altar & pulpit to accommodate large outdoor crowds for services

• design: praying hands, dove wings, boat hull = Christian symbols of divine generosity

Dome of the Rock

Jerusalem

687—692

historic Abrahamic religion pilgrimage site

• burial place of Adam

• altar where Isaac (Abraham’s son) was saved

• Hebrew Temple destroyed by Roman Emperor Titus in 70

• stone Mohammed ascended from to heaven/returned to Mecca

→ geometric like Roman + Byzantine architecture; ornamented octagonal platform topped w/ gilded dome

temple complexes/grand places of worship are expressions of:

temporal power

religious power

broad cultural values

First Hypostyle Hall

Horus Temple at Edfu (Egypt)

237—57 BCE

Parthenon

Iktinos and Kallikrates (Athens, Greece)

447—432 BCE

pentelic marble

• temple design = Doric; classic Greek architecture

• more graceful/refines than older temples, but still uses post-and-lintel system

• architects treated Parthenon more like sculpture than architecture

  • steps = base of structure, like a pedestal for sculpture

  • higher at middle of each side and lower at corners = counteract illusion of sagging in middle

Horsemen (from Parthenon frieze)

440 BCE

marble

• represents participants of Panathenaic Festival procession

• worshippers become more solemn and orderly as they approach the gods

Great Pylon of the Horus Temple at Edfu

Egypt

237-57 BCE

granite and limestone

• Horus; specific cult image as sun falcon

  • cult temples believed to be actual dwellings of gods

• geometric mountains flank entrance to temple function as gate AND social barrier blocking entry for lower classes

• temple becomes darker + rooms get smaller as you keep going

  • divine permanence/power = monumental granite/limestone

mathematical proportions = Greek philosophy:

want perfection in science/art/etc

certain geometry/ratios were divine

hypostyle

parallel rows of columns supporting ceiling

Kandarya Mahadeva Temple

Khajuraho, India

1000—1100 CE

• Hindu; dedicated to Shiva

• artificial mountain on top of small, dark, womb-like chamber

• temple = dwelling of deity

  • temple exterior = helps people w/ meditating on reincarnation

  • simple umbrella shape at tops of towers = Unbounded

Hindu temple theology/design:

2 belief systems

1. nature-based: worships spirits responsible for plant/animal life; reincarnation: infinitely repeating cycle of life/death

2. understanding cosmos in geometric terms: early cave temples carved into mountains = opening earth’s womb

• later temples: more elaborate, but still keep womb-temple formula

• some other temples: freestanding, cube-like

Temple of Heaven (Round Hall)

Beijing

1500—1600 CE

wood with tile roof

• 3 tiered pagoda where emperor did religious/poltical ceremonies outside Forbidden City

design of a pagoda:

geometric simplified mountain form

wide eaves = shelter from sun and rain

4 central posts = 4 seasons

other columns = months of year, division of day/night

marble slab w/ dragon + phoenix = symbols of emperor + empress

Altar of Heaven (complex of altar + temple)

grounds

history of Hebrew Temple:

957 BCE: King Solomon built first temple in Jerusalem

586 BCE: destroyed

515: second temple begun/dedicated

• Wailing Wall in Jerusalem: believed to be ruins of old first temple; serves as one of the foundations for Dome of the Rock

the Gothic Cathedral

funded by/built in cities = rise of cities/monarchies = decline in feudalism

• Catholic; saw church as heaven on earth

• modern humanist view: developing; individualism

plan and design:

• spires = link heaven and earth

• large windows; stone framework

• blank spaces = covered w/ sculptures

• flying buttresses; visual pattern of forms; in-and-out

  • towers/arches/buttresses/arcades = create visual lines; continue from ground to roof

Chartres Cathedral

Chartres, France

1145—1120 CE

• rose window: Old Testament prophets/kinds surrounding Mary and Jesus

• geometry used; drawing/rotating squares within the circle

parts of Islamic mosques:

mihrab: marks direction of Mecca

minbar: stepped pulpit next to mihrab

minarets: towers/spires

mukarnas: vaults above door

pattern: ornamentation = Allah = infinite creation

• enhances sacredness of mosque

• identifies/distinguishes various parts of mosque

calligraphy: elegant; artful pattern by itself

• like geometric/foliage patterns

later developments in mosque design: Royal Mosque

Masjid-i-Shah (Royal Mosque)

Isfahan, Iran

1612—1637 CE

• rough exterior vs. lavish interior

• spaciousness/symmetry = infinite Allah

• structure = unified by big turquoise dome

  • symbolizes oneness of Allah/heavens

Main Entrance Portal

Masjid-i-Shah (Royal Mosque)

calligraphy/ornamentation

Pyramid of the Sun

Teotihuacan

before 150 CE

• in middle of Avenue of the Dead

• temple itself covers 7.5 acres, 215 feet tall

• history/setting: 39mi north of CDMX; Teotihuacános built religious center in city high on plateau surrounded by mountains, aka Teotihuacán

• mound was once covered w/ huge clay bricks w/ stone facades, finished w/ smooth white lime plaster; used to look like gleaming white mountain

Mesoamerican Temples = often pyramids w/ small structures on top

Tlalocan Painting

Teotihuacán, MX

pigment on stucco

• water is springing from her hands

• water goddess Tlalocan = paradise; ruled by rain god Tlalo

• plants/butterflies grow from her head