Intro to Psych Review

Origin of Psychology

1879, when Wilhelm Wundt opened the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany, marking psychology’s transition from philosophy to a scientific discipline.

Wilhelm Wundt

German psychologist considered the father of psychology; used objective introspection to study conscious experience.

Objective Introspection

A structured method in which trained observers carefully reported sensations, thoughts, and feelings in response to stimuli.

Structuralism

A school of psychology that focused on identifying the basic elements of consciousness through introspection.

Edward Titchener

Student of Wundt who brought Structuralism to the United States.

William James

Early American psychologist who founded Functionalism and emphasized practical applications of psychology.

Functionalism

A school of thought that focused on how mental processes and behavior help individuals adapt to their environment.

Psychology in America

Emphasized practical applications, observable behavior, and real-world problem solving rather than introspection.

Gestalt Psychology

A school of psychology emphasizing that perception is organized into meaningful wholes; the whole is greater than the sum of its parts.

Sigmund Freud

Founder of psychoanalysis who emphasized the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and internal conflict.

Psychoanalysis

A theory and method of therapy focused on unconscious motives and unresolved childhood conflicts.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who discovered classical conditioning through experiments with dogs.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus to produce a learned response.

Behaviorism

A school of psychology that studies observable behavior and learning through conditioning.

John Watson

Founder of behaviorism who argued psychology should focus only on observable behavior.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist who developed operant conditioning and emphasized reinforcement and punishment.

Educational Psychology

The study of learning, teaching strategies, academic achievement, and motivation in educational settings.

Evolutionary Psychology

The study of how behavior and mental processes evolved through natural selection.

Industrial/Organizational Psychology

The study of behavior in the workplace, including productivity, leadership, and employee satisfaction.

Nervous System

The body’s communication network that transmits information between the brain, spinal cord, and body.

Central Nervous System

Consists of the brain and spinal cord; responsible for processing and interpreting information.

Peripheral Nervous System

All nerves outside the central nervous system that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.

Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movement.

Autonomic Nervous System

Regulates involuntary bodily processes such as heart rate and digestion.

Sympathetic Nervous System

Activates the body’s fight-or-flight response.

Parasympathetic Nervous System

Calms the body and conserves energy; rest-and-digest response.

Neuron

A specialized nerve cell that transmits information.

Dendrites

Branchlike structures that receive messages from other neurons.

Cell Body

Contains the nucleus and integrates incoming neural signals.

Axon

A long fiber that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body.

Myelin Sheath

A fatty covering that insulates the axon and speeds up neural transmission.

Axon Terminals

Structures that release neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Synapse

The tiny gap between neurons where chemical communication occurs.

Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that transmit signals between neurons.

Glial Cells

Support, nourish, protect, and insulate neurons.

Cerebral Cortex

The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher thinking, reasoning, and perception.

Limbic System

A group of brain structures involved in emotion, motivation, and memory.

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in processing emotions such as fear and aggression.

Hippocampus

Brain structure important for forming new memories.

Brainstem

Controls basic life functions such as breathing and heartbeat.

Cerebellum

Coordinates balance, posture, and voluntary movement.

Neuroplasticity

The brain’s ability to change and reorganize itself as a result of experience or injury.

Sensation

The process by which sensory receptors detect physical energy from the environment.

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information into meaningful experiences.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50 percent of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference

The smallest detectable difference between two stimuli detected 50 percent of the time.

Difference Threshold

Another term for the just noticeable difference.

Cornea

The clear outer layer of the eye that begins focusing incoming light.

Pupil

The adjustable opening in the center of the eye that allows light to enter.

Lens

Focuses incoming light onto the retina.

Retina

The light-sensitive layer of the eye containing rods and cones.

Rods

Photoreceptors responsible for black-and-white vision and night vision.

Cones

Photoreceptors responsible for color vision and fine detail.

Optic Nerve

Carries visual information from the retina to the brain.

Trichromatic Theory

Theory stating that color vision is based on three types of cones sensitive to red, green, and blue.

Opponent-Process Theory

Theory stating that color is perceived through opposing color pairs.

Proprioception

The sense of body position and movement.

Bottom-Up Processing

Perception that begins with sensory input.

Top-Down Processing

Perception influenced by expectations, experience, and prior knowledge.

Consciousness

Awareness of thoughts, feelings, sensations, and the surrounding environment.

Selective Attention

The ability to focus on one stimulus while ignoring others.

Multitasking

Attempting to perform multiple tasks at once, which reduces accuracy and efficiency.

Sleep

A naturally recurring state of rest necessary for physical and mental health.

REM Sleep

Sleep stage associated with vivid dreaming and rapid eye movements.

NREM Sleep

Non-REM sleep stages involved in physical restoration.

Insomnia

A sleep disorder involving difficulty falling or staying asleep.

Sleep Apnea

A disorder involving repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep.

Narcolepsy

A disorder characterized by sudden sleep attacks and REM intrusion.

Hypnosis

A state of focused attention and increased suggestibility.

Drug Tolerance

The need for increasing amounts of a drug to achieve the same effect.

Physical Dependence

A physiological adaptation to a drug resulting in withdrawal symptoms.

Psychological Dependence

Emotional or mental reliance on a drug.

Stimulants

Drugs that increase nervous system activity and alertness.

Antidepressants

Drugs that treat depression by increasing neurotransmitter availability.

Psychedelics

Drugs that alter perception, mood, and consciousness.

Dissociative Drugs

Drugs that cause detachment from reality or self.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

Cognitive Learning Theory

Learning theory that emphasizes mental processes such as thinking and expectations.

Learned Helplessness

A belief that actions have no effect due to repeated failure or uncontrollable events.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist known for observational learning and the Bobo doll experiment.

Phobia

An intense, irrational fear of a specific object or situation.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by positive consequences are more likely to be repeated.

Punishment

A consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

Applied Behavior Analysis

A therapy using reinforcement principles to change behavior, often used with autism.

Memory

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Storage

The retention of information over time.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information.

Sensory Memory

Very brief memory storage of sensory information.

Short-Term Memory

Memory that holds limited information for a short period of time.

Long-Term Memory

Relatively permanent and unlimited memory storage.

Automatic Encoding

Encoding information without conscious effort.

Interference

Forgetting caused by competition between memories.

Decay

The fading of memory traces over time.

Amnesia

Memory loss due to brain injury, trauma, or disease.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of memories formed before an injury.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories after injury.

Cognition

Mental processes involved in thinking, knowing, and remembering.

Insight

A sudden realization of a solution to a problem.