APES Review

Tragedy of the Commons

common resources are exploit for riches, but the price of the depletion is an external cost paid by all people on Earth

Examples of Tragedy of the Commons

(1): Air pollution

(2): Habitat destruction and poaching

(3): Overfishing

Limits to Tragedy of the Commons

(1): Breaking commons into smaller, privately owned parcels fragments; different standards for individual parcels

(2): Easily controlled commons: land, lakes, deserts, and forests (easier than air or open oceans)

(3): Economic decisions are short-term, while environmental decisions are long term

1st Agricultural Revolution

(2000+ BCE) people went from hunting and gathering to the domestication of plants and animals, which allowed people to settle in areas and create cities

2nd Agricultural Revolution

(1700-1900 CE) aka the Industrial Revolution; mechanization had a major role in this revolution and changed the way people farmed (e.g. increased agricultural output made it possible to feed large, urban populations)

3rd Agricultural Revolution

(1900 CE-present) mechanization requires less labor and makes food prices more affordable; biotechnology, genetic engineering, and the use of pesticides are now beginning to focus on more sustainable methods

1st Green Revolution

(1940s-1980s) involved the use of inorganic fertilizers, synthetic pesticides, efficient irrigation methods, and high-yielding crop seeds with disease and climate resistance

2nd Green Revolution

(1980s-Present) new engineering techniques and free-trade agreements which helped to shape agricultural policies and food production and distribution systems worldwide; introduction to GMOs

Norman Borlaug

(1): Criticized for large-scale monoculture and input-intensive farming techniques to countries that had previously relied on subsistence farming to support smaller populations

(2): Created disease-resistant and high-yielding strains of food crops that could withstand harsh climates

(3): Laid the groundwork for agricultural technological advances that helped alleviate world hunger

mining

removing mineral resource from the ground (E: mine wastes---acids and toxins. Displacement of native species. Reclamation of land and recycling)

processing

removing ore from gangue (E: pollution (Air, water, soil, and noise). Involves transportation, processing, purification, smelting, and manufacturing. Human health concerns, risks, and hazards)

use

involves distribution to end rust (E: Air pollution involved in transporting final products to end user)

contour mining

(Surface) removing overburden from the seam in a pattern following the contours along a ridge or around a hillside

dredging

(Surface) a method for mining below the water table and usually associated with gold mining. Small dredges use suction or scoops to bring the mined material up from the bottom of a body of water

in situ

(Surface) small holes are drilled into the Earth and toxic chemical solvents are inspired to extract the resource

mountaintop removal

(Surface) removal of mountaintops to expose coal seams and disposing of associated mining overburden in adjacent “valley fills"

open pit

(Surface) extracting rock or minerals from the Earth by their removal from an open pit when deposits of commercially useful ore or rocks are found near the surface l

strip mining

(Surface) exposes coal by removing the soil above each coal seam

blast

(Underground) uses explosives to break up the seam, after which the material is loaded onto conveyors and transported to a processing center

longwall

(Underground) uses a rotating drum with “teeth", which is pulled back and forth across a coal seam---the material then breaks loose and is transported to the surface

room and pillar

(Underground) approximately half of the coal is left in place as pillars to support the roof of the active mining area. Later, the pillars are removed and the mine collapses

Mining Environmental Damage

(1): dust released causes lung problems and posing other health risks

(2): chemicals from in situ leaching entering the water table

(3): disruption of natural habitats

Solutions to Mining Damage

(1): using sulfate-reducing bacteria (acidophiles) in catchment basin

(2): neutralizing the soil with limestone (CaCO3) or lime (CaO)

(3): replanting the area with fast-growing native vegetation

Urbanization

the movement of people from rural areas to cities and the changes that accompany it

Asia & Africa

areas that experience the greatest growth in urbanization

Pros of Urbanization

(1): mass transit systems decrease reliance on fossil fuels---communting distances are shorter

(2): urban areas attract industry due to the availability of raw materials, distribution networks, customers, and labor pool

(3): uses less land---less impact on the environment

Cons of Urbanization

(1): large numbers of poor people place strains on social services. This results in wealthier people's moving away from urban areas into suburbs and decreasing the tax base

(2): overcrowded schools

(3): solid-waste buildup is more pronounced. Landfill space becomes scarce and costly

Reasons for Urbanization

Access to jobs, higher standards of living, easier access to healthcare, mechanization of agriculture, and access to education

urban (suburban) sprawl

the expansion of human populations away from central urban areas into low-density and usually car-dependent communities

Reasons for Urban Sprawl

An increased need for and reliance on cars, higher family incomes (both parents working), tax advantages for buying a home, companies moving and/or expanding where there is more land available, with workers following, perception of better schools and lower crime, and aesthetics (more green lawns and less blight)

Characteristics of Urban Sprawl

(1): low-density housing

(2): leap frog development - separated by tracts of underdeveloped land

(3): job sprawl

Environmental Consequences of Urban Sprawl

(1): decreases in natural areas and forests

(2): more surface flooding because of more impervious, paved surfaces

(3): water pollution increases because of urban runoff and rainwater picking up gasoline, motor oil, heavy metals, and other pollutants in runoff from parking lots and roads

smart growth

an urban planning and transportation plan designed to slow urban sprawl and concentrate growth in compact, walkable “urban villages” and advocates compact, transit-oriented, walkable, bicycle-friendly land use, neighborhood schools, and mixed-use development with a range of housing choices

Smart Growth/Sustainable Development Strategies

(1): providing subsidies for mass transit systems and riders

(2): reducing urban blight by replacing abandoned buildings with green, open spaces

(3): providing property tax incentives to companies that locate in urban centers

urban development

the process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities and towns with the goal of making urban areas more attractive, functional, and sustainable

Urban Development Strategies

(1): preserving historical and cultural aspects of the community while at the same time blending into the natural feeling and aesthetics of a community

(2): using designs that minimize waste while utilizing recycled materials

(3): placing buildings whenever possible near public transportation hubs that use a multitude of connections, such as light rail, subways, and park and rides

sustainable agricultural practices

emphasize production and food systems that are profitable, environmentally sound, and energy efficient, and that improve the quality of life for both farmers and the public

Examples of Sustainable Agricultural Practices

(1): developing ecologically-based pest management programs

(2): increasing energy efficiency in production and food distribution

(3): reducing or eliminating tillage in a manner that is consistent with effective weed control

Factors That Foster Sustainable Agriculture

(1): understanding the impact of agricultural management practices on ecosystem services

(2): public education to inform consumers and those involved in policy making about the environmental costs and benefits of alternative management practices

(3): policies or incentives that pay or reward producers for providing ecosystem services

Forces That Discourage the Adoption of Sustainable Agricultural Practices

(1): large populations seeking inexpensive food

(2): economic incentives that reward growers for externalizing environmental costs to the rest of the society (e.g., policies that do not penalize water contamination due to pesticide runoff or soil erosion)

(3): political pressure to minimize environmental restrictions

contour plowing

plowing along the contours of the land in order to minimize soil erosion

no-till agriculture

soil is left undisturbed by tillage and the residue is left on the soil surface

planting perennial crops

perennials live for several years; e.g., fruit trees

Advantages of Perennial Crops

(1): energy is saved as there is no need for clearing areas for plowing, sowing seeds and composting, and mulching the soil to supply nutrients for plantings. Perennials also tend to need less care than annuals as they have established root systems

(2): retain enough foliage to effectively become a cover crop, which protects the soil from evaporation by the sun and protects it from erosion by wind and rainfall, allowing for preserving nutrients to be available for plant growth

(3): can often be split into two or more separate plants, reducing the energy required for preparing for and planting new crops each year

strip cropping

cultivation in which different crops are sown in alternate strips

terracing

make or form (sloping land) into a number of level flat areas resembling a series of steps

windbreaks

rows of trees that provide shelter or protection from the wind

World's Energy Consumption

predicted to grow by ~50% between 2020-2050

Percentage of Global Energy Increase by Developing Countries

71% increase

nuclear fission

an atom splits into two or more smaller nuclei along with by-product particles. The reaction gives off heat (exothermic). If controlled, the heat that is produced is used to produce steam that turns generators that then produce electricity

nuclear meltdown

an informal term for a severe nuclear reactor accident that results in core damage from overheating (e.g., Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster)

U-235

less than 1% of all-natural uranium on Earth. The minimum amount required for a chain reaction is called the critical mass. Nuclear weapons contain 85% or more, whereas nuclear power plants contain about 3%. Half-life is 700 million years.

U-238

the most common (99.3%) isotope of uranium and has a half-life of 4.5 billion years. Most depleted uranium

Pu (Plutonium)-239

has a half-life of 24,000 years and is produced in breeder reactors from U-238. One-third of the total energy produced in a typical commercial nuclear power plant

Reasons for the Decline of Nuclear Energy in the US (late 1980s)

cost overruns, higher-than-expected operating costs, safety issues, disposal of nuclear wastes, and the perception of its being a risky investment

core

contains up to 50,000 fuel rods. Each fuel rod is stacked with many fuel pellets; each pellet has the energy equivalent of 1 ton (0.9 m.t.) of coal or 17,000 ft³ (481 m³) of natural gas or 149 gallons (564 L) of oil

fuel

enriched (concentrated) U-235 is usually the fuel. The fission of an atom of uranium produces 10 million times the energy produced by the combustion of an atom of carbon from coal

control rods

move in and out of the core to absorb neutrons and slow down the reaction

moderator

reduces the speed of fast neutrons, thereby allowing a sustainable chain reaction. Moderators can be water, graphite (which can produce plutonium for weapons), or deuterium oxide (heavy water ²H2O or D2O). Deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen whose nucleus comprises both a neutron and a proton, whereas the nucleus of a normal hydrogen atom consists of just one proton

coolant

removes heat and produces steam to generate electricity

turbine

a rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work. The work produced can be used for generating electrical power when combined with a generator

electrical generator

a device that converts motive power (mechanical energy) or fuel-based power (chemical energy) into electric power

cooling tower

a specialized heat exchanger in which air and water are brought into direct contact with each other in order to reduce the water's temperature of the water being circulated through the tower

Pros of Nuclear Energy

(1): it's possible to fuel nuclear power plants with thorium, which is a greener alternative. China, Russia, and India have plans to start using thorium to fuel their reactors in the near future

(2): disruption of land is low to moderate

(3): it releases about one-sixth the CO2 that fossil-fuel plants do, thus reducing global warming

Cons of Nuclear Energy

(1): mining uranium results in mine tailings that are radioactive, the alteration of wildlife habitats, and groundwater contamination