Chemistry 1B

Solution

Homogenous mixture of two or more substances

Solvent

Component of a solution that is present in the greatest amount

Solute

Component in a solution other than solvent

Formula for solution concentration

Amount of solute/ amount of solvent

Concentration Units

Ppm & ppb

Formula (ppm): 1 mg solute/1kg of solution

Formula (ppb): 1 microgram solute/1kg of solution

Molarity Formula

Moles of solute/ liter of solution (n/v)

Dilution

Process of lowering the concentration of a solution by adding more solvent

Stock Solution

A concentrated solution of a substance used to prepare solutions of lower concentration

Standard Solution

A solution whose concentration is fairly precisely known

Electrolyte

Solute that produces ions in solution which enables its solution to conduct electricity

Strong Electrolytes

Nearly 100% dissociated into ions & Conduct current efficiently

Example: Solution of HCl

Weak Electrolytes

Only partially dissociates into ions & Slightly conductive

Example: Vinegar (aqueous solution of acetic acid)

No electrolytes

Substances in which no ionization occurs; no conduction of electrical current

Example: Aqueous solution of sugar

Arrhenius Definition of Acid

Produce H3O+ in solution

Arrhenius Definition of Base

Produce OH- in solution

Bronsted-Lowry Definition of Acid

Proton (H+) donors

Bronsted-Lowry Definition of Base

Proton Acceptors

Strong Acids/Bases

Dissociate completely in aqueous solution

Example: Strong Electrolyte

Weak Acids

Weak acids are weak electrolytes that only partially dissociate in aqueous solutions.

Monoprotic Acids

• An acid capable of donating one H+ ion

• Includes carboxylic acids which contain COOH functional group

Diprotic Acids

• An acid capable of donating up to two H+ ions

• H2SO4

Triprotic Acids

• An acid capable of donating up to three H+ ions

• H3PO4

Amphiprotic

Acts as an acid or base

Neutralization

Reaction that takes place when an acid reacts with a base, producing a solution of a salt in water

Salt

• Product of a neutralization reaction

• Made up of the cation of the base plus the anion of the acid

Molecular Equation

• Reactants/products written as undissociated molecules

Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) → NaCl(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

Overall Ionic Equation

• Distinguishes between molecular and ionic substances

• Ionic species represented as dissolved ions

Example: H+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + Na+(aq) + OH-(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) + H2O(ℓ)

Net Ionic Equation

• Equation where spectator ions (ions present in same form on both reactants and products side of chemical equation) are removed from ionic equation

Example: H+(aq) + OH-(aq) → H2O(ℓ)

Beer’s Law

A = εbc

A = absorbance (amount of light absorbed by sample)

ε = molar absorptivity

b = path length

c = concentration of absorbing species

Titration

Analytical method to determine the concentration of a solute in a sample by reacting it with a standard solution

Titrant

A solution of known concentration

Equivalence Point

When moles of titrant is stoichiometrically equivalent to moles of the substance being analyzed

End Point

When the indicator changes color

Precipitate

Solid product formed from a reaction in solution

Are all Group 1 metal compounds soluble?

Yes, all Group 1 (Li⁺, Na⁺, K⁺, etc.) compounds are soluble with any anion. No exceptions.

Are all NH₄⁺ (ammonium) compounds soluble?

Yes, NH₄⁺ compounds are always soluble, no exceptions

Are nitrates (NO₃⁻) always soluble?

Yes, NO₃⁻ salts are always soluble with any cation.

Are acetates (CH₃COO⁻) soluble?

Yes, acetates are always soluble with any cation

Are chlorides (Cl⁻), bromides (Br⁻), and iodides (I⁻) always soluble?

Mostly yes, except limited solubility with:

Ag⁺, Cu⁺, Hg₂²⁺, Pb²⁺

Are sulfates (SO₄²⁻) always soluble?

Mostly yes, except limited with:

Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺, Hg₂²⁺, Pb²⁺

Are hydroxides (OH⁻) and sulfides (S²⁻) soluble?

Mostly not.
✅ Soluble with:

• Group 1

• NH₄⁺

• Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺ (slightly soluble for OH⁻)

Are carbonates (CO₃²⁻), phosphates (PO₄³⁻), and similar polyatomic anions soluble?

Mostly not soluble.
✅ Soluble only with:

• Group 1 or NH₄⁺

What’s the mnemonic for "Always Soluble" ions?

NAG SAG

• Nitrates, Acetates, Group 1

• Sulfates, Ammonium, Group 17 (halides)

What’s the mnemonic for solubility exceptions?

PMS & Castro Bear

• PMS: Pb²⁺, Mercury (Hg₂²⁺), Silver (Ag⁺)

• Castro Bear: Ca²⁺, Sr²⁺, Ba²⁺ (for sulfates & OH⁻)

Saturated Solution

Solution that contains the maximum amount of solute possible at a given temperature

Unsaturated Solution

Solution that contains less than the maximum quantity of solute

Supersaturated Solution

Solution that contains more than the maximum quantity of solute predicted to be solute in a given volume of solution at a given temperature

Oxidation

Once defined as a reaction that increases the oxygen content of a substance

Reduction

Once defined as a reaction that reduced the oxygen content of a substance

Oxidation Number

Numerical value based on the number of electrons that an atom gains or loses when it forms an ion or that it shares when it forms a covalent bond with an atom of another element