FINAL - american foreign policy

1. identifications 2. historical 3. mechanics 4. economic & global management issues 5. regional policy

Foreign Assistance Act of 1961

Signed in by Kennedy in 1961 and mandated the establishment of a single agency for the coordination of foreign assistance and created USAID (U.S. Agency for International Development). This outlined and organized the political and ideological principles of U.S. foreign aid, distinguished military and nonmilitary aid, and established the U.S. as a more powerful aid beacon.

U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID)

Created in 1961 by the Foreign Assistance Act of 1961 to administer humanitarian aid programs on behalf of the government. It served as the principal US agency for international development adn humanitarian assistance and contributed to AFP goals by contributing to global health, economic growth, and crisis relief.

Millennium Challenge Corporation (MCC)

A U.S. foreign aid agency established in 2004 to promote economic growth and reduce poverty in select countries. This program drives reforms and economic growth that promote U.S. national security and stability in America’s partner countries.

President’s Emergency Plan for Aids Relief (PEPFAR)

A U.S. government initiative signed into law in 2003 aimed at controlling the global HIV/AIDS epidemic. This program is the largest commitment by any nation to address a single disease, saving over 25 million people now and strengthening global health security.

NAFTA / USMCA

Founded originally in 1994 and created a free-trade zone between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico. This was replaced in 2020 by the U.S.-Mexico-Canada Agreement. This shaped North American economic integration, with the newer program updating labor and digital trade rules.

CAFTA-DR

A 2004 free trade agreement between the U.S. and Central American nations plus the Dominican Republic. It strengthened U.S. economic ties in the WesternHemisphere but faced criticism over labor and environmental impacts.

U.S. Trade Representative (USTR)

A cabinet level position that serves as the chief us trade negotiator, representing american interests in global trade agreements and disputes, originally created in 1962. This reflects the integration of trade and diplomacy in modern foreign policy.

Trans Pacific Partnership (TPP)

A major free trade agreement between 12 Pacific nations in 2016, excluding China. It aimed to counter China’s growing economic influence but was abandoned by Trump in 2017, shifting global trade dynamics.

Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (TTIP)

A proposed trade agreement between the European Union and the US with the goal of increasing trade and investment between the two regions by removing barriers to trade and reducing regulatory differences. However, it was never fully carried out.

National Economic Council (NEC)

A White House body that coordinated economic policy formed in 1993. It helps align domestic and foreign economic strategies, particularly on trade and sanctions.

Trade Promotion Authority

A legislative process that allows the president to negotiate trade agreements with foreign countries with the understanding that Congress will vote on the final agreement without amendments and establishes a framework for congress and the executive branch to work together on trade policy. It enhances the President's negotiating power and provides certainty for trading partners

World’s Reserve Currency

The U.S. dollar is the primary global reserve currency, meaning it is widely used in international trade, finance, and central bank reserves, becoming dominant after world war ii and formalized at the Bretton Woods Conference in 1944. This gave the US immense economic and geopolitical leverage and enables the US to run a larger deficit with lower interest rates. Additionally, it is integral to institutions like the IMF and World Bank and a point of geopolitical tension with other global powers like Russia and China advocating for de-dollarization.

NATO Burden Sharing Dispute

A long-standing debate over how much each NATO member should contribute to collective defense spending, especially in relation to the 2% of GDP guideline. This has been ongoing, but is especially intensified under the Trump administration. The U.S. has often pressed allies to spend more on defense and Trump has repeatedly criticized allies for “free riding” which heightens tensions over shared responsibility, alliance credibility, and strategic priorities.

NATO englargement

The process by which new countries have joined NATO since its formation in 1949 but referring to NATO opening up to more Eastern European states through a trial “partnership” after the end of the Cold War and the abolition of the Warsaw Pact. While this signified a strategic shift towards a larger, more inclusive security alliance, Russia felt threatened and rejected stronger relations between the U.S. and Russia, declaring a “cold peace.”

Ukraine-Russia War (2022)

A war initiated by Russia’s aggression toward Ukraine, including the annexation of Crimea, support for separatists in Eastern Ukraine, and a full invasion in 2022. This prompted unprecedented U.S. and NATO support for Ukraine, including military aid, sanctions, and diplomatic backing.

Arab Spring

A wave of pro-democracy uprisings and protests across the Middle East and North Africa beginning in Tunisia and spreading to Egypt, Libya, Syria, etc. starting at the end of 2010. This tested the U.S.’s foreign policy and whether we would support democracy or back allies and this also sparked debates about US intervention, nonintervention, and the limits of democracy promotion. Additionally, it led to long term implications for regional stability, terrorism, and US credibility.

Suez Canal Crisis

a 1956 military and diplomatic conflict triggered by Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal, owned by British and French companies, after the U.S. angered them by retracting their offer to finance the Aswan High Dam. Israel, backed by Britain and France, invaded Egypt but faced international pressure and ultimately withdrew, marking a significant shift in the global balance of power and challenging the relationship between the U.S. (who wanted to solve this diplomatically) and Britain and France (two U.S. primary Cold War allies; wanted to solve this militarily).

Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA)

A 2015 Iran nuclear deal aimed at limiting Iran’s nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief. The U.S. withdrew in 2018 under Trump, straining diplomatic efforts and regional stability.

Abraham Accords

A series of agreements in 2020 normalizing relations between Israel and several Arab countries (UAE, Bahrain, Sudan, Morocco). It marked a shift in Middle East diplomacy, strengthening U.S.-backed regional alliances against Iran.

Hay’s Open Door

An open door policy to the major European powers in 1899 by Sec. of State John Hay in attempt to ensure equal access to trade and investment in China and to preserve its territorial integrity. This was significant as it prevented disputes between the powers operating in China.

Pivot to Asia

A strategic shift under Obama in 2011 to focus on Asia, countering China’s rise. It emphasized trade, military presence, and alliances in the Indo-Pacific.

Freedom of Navigation Operations

U.S. military operations beginning in 1979 (typically involving the Navy) that asserted navigational rights and freedoms in disputed maritime areas such as the South China Sea. These help reinforce international law and are central to Ind-pacific Strategy and countering Chinese aggression.

Taiwan Relations Act

U.S. law signed in 1979 (after the US recognized the People’s Republic of China) that governs unofficial relations with Taiwan, committing the US to provide defensive arms and maintain capacity to resist force against Taiwan. This is key to deterring Chinese invasion of Taiwan and is increasingly relevant and important in US indo-pacific policy as China ramps up pressure on Taiwan and regional tensions rise.

Uyghur Human Rights Act

An act signed in in 2020 to condemn human rights violations against ethnic Turkic Muslims (like internment camps) in Xinjiang by the Chinese Communist Party through sanctions. This shows the US commitment to human rights as a part of foreign policy and marks an escalation of US-China tensions. Additionally, its used to justify the Magnitsky Act sanctions, visa bans, and export restrictions.

CHIPS and Sciences Act

A 2022 U.S. law aimed at boosting domestic semiconductor manufacturing and scientific research to reduce reliance on China. This reflects growing U.S. economic security concerns and competition with China in advanced technology.

Monroe Doctrine

A U.S. foreign policy declared in 1823 stating that European intervention in the Americas would be seen as a threat to US interests. It shaped US dominance in the Western Hemisphere and was later used to justify interventions in Latin America.

Plan Colombia

A US funded initiative in 2000 aimed at combating drug cartels, insurgency, and strengthening Colombian institutions through military aid and economic support. This helped weaken FARC insurgents and reduce cocaine production, but only temporarily. It was often criticized for human rights abuses, militarization, and limited focus on root causes like poverty.

Merida Initiative

a security cooperation agreement between the United States, Mexico, and Central American countries from 2008 to 2011 to counter drug trafficking, transnational crime, and violence through US aid and training. This marked a major us foreign policy commitment to regional security in Latin America but was criticized for militarizing the drug war and furthering American interventionism

Andean Counterdrug Initiative

A program started in 2004 with the goal of disrupting the transportation and export/trans-shipment of illegal coca leaf and precursor chemicals. This shows the wider effect of the Sept. 11th attacks as since then, regional security issues have come into a sharper focus and intermestic policy becoming more prominent.

Intermestic

A term referring to the interconnectedness between domestic and international policy that highlights how issues that were once considered purely domestic now have significant international implications and vice versa. Examples: immigration, drug trafficking, climate change

Federalist Paper #75

A paper written by Alexander Hamilton in 1788 that states the president is to have power by and with the advice and consent f the senate to make treaties, provided 2/3 of the senators present concur. This paper described the dangers at stake in allowing the president sole power to engage in treaty-making and the benefits in including the senate in making treaties.

War Powers Resolution

A federal law intended to check the president’s power to commit the U.S. to armed conflict without congressional approval passed in 1973. This was passed in response to Vietnam War abuses and expanded presidential war powers and represents an attempt to reassert congressional authority over war-making powers.

Executive Agreements

International agreements made by the president that do not require senate approval (as treaties do). This allows presidents to quickly and independently engage in foreign policy actions but is controversial because they can bypass congressional oversight, raising questions about the separation of power.

Executive Orders

Directives issued by the president that manage operations of the federal government.They carry the force of law but do not require congressional approval. These allow the president to act quickly and unilaterally on policy, including foreign policy and national security and reflect the expansion of executive power in foreign affairs.

Congressional-Executive Agreements

International agreements that are approved by a majority in both houses of congress instead of the 2/3 senate requirement required for treaties. These are often used for trade agreements such as NAFTA or USMCA and represent a shared power between congress and the president in foreign policy. They show congress’ influence in foreign policy decision making as well as the system of checks and balances in the US government.

Clientitis

Emerged in the Cold War era; when diplomats or state department officials become too sympathetic or aligned with the country they’re posted in rather than U.S. interests. This can lead to biased reporting, poor policy advice, and weakened U.S. leverage and undermines the objectivity expected of foreign service officers.

Unprofessional Ambassadors

Refers to ambassadors who are political appointees lacking diplomatic experience or foreign policy expertise. This accounts for about 30-40% of US ambassadors and results in poor representation, strained bilateral relationships, and unprofessionalism as well as symbolizing favoritism and patronage in foreign policy staffing.

Interagency Process

The process by which multiple US government agencies (State, Defense, CIA, Treasury) coordinate on foreign policy decisions, often led by the NSC. This was formalized post wwii and structured through the NSC system after 1947 National Security Act. This ensures policy coherence and coordination across departments but can become slow or conflicted due to bureaucratic competition and differing priorities.

The Iron Rule

Part of the NSC interagency process. States that no one agency or department can handle a given problem alone.

The National Security Council (NSC)

The president’s principal forum for national security and foreign policy decision-making established by the National Security Act of 1947 and composed of top advisers such as the Sec. of State, Sec. of Defense, Homeland security, National security advisor, and others. This centralizes foreign policy coordination across agencies and offers the president direct control over military, intelligence, and diplomatic input.

Office of Director of National Intelligence (DNI)

Created in 2004 by the Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act. They provide daily briefs to the president informing him on what he needs to know in global affairs.

Homeland Security Act

Legislation that created the Department of Homeland Security in 2002 in response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks, consolidating 22 agencies under one department. This marks a shift in focus to domestic security, emergency response, and counterterrorism but raised debates over civil liberties, surveillance, and interagency effectiveness

Intelligence Reform and Terrorism Prevention Act

Sweeping post-9/11 legislation passed in 2004 that created the Director of National Intelligence to oversee all US intelligence agencies, and made reforms to aviation, border, and information sharing. This was a key example of how crises lead to structural change in US foreign and national security policy.

President’s Daily Brief

A highly classified intelligence summary prepared daily by the CIA (now by the DNI) for the president and top national security advisors, formalized under Pres. JFK in 1961. This is central to informing the President on global threats, crisis, and developments and reflects the importance of the intelligence community in shaping daily foreign policy decisions.

CNN Effect

The idea that public opinion, driven by dramatic video images of human suffering from 24-hour satellite news, would pressure governments to take military or humanitarian action abroad that they would otherwise avoid. This suggests that the immediacy and constant nature of news can influence how policymakers respond to events, potentially leading to quicker and more dramatic interventions.

Manufactured Consent

The opposing theory to the CNN effect that argues that the government influences media (possibly in a propagandist way and to artificially bolster support for their policy), assuming the public is generally uninformed about foreign affairs, leaving the president and government officials to frame international issues and dictate policies.

Rally-around-the-flag Effect

A phenomenon that occurs when patriotic fervor unites Congress and the public behind the president in times of crisis. When this occurs, it creates an environment either in which the public is unwilling to listen to alternate opinions or when journalists self-censor. During this, media are mobilized as tools to validate government policies rather than questioning them because the public will not tolerate dissenting voices.

Parachute Journalism

The practice of briefly sending journalists into unfamiliar areas to report on a story and then extracting them back in pursuit of being the first to report to a story and to grab attention. While it provides a fresh perspective on the reporting, there is a lack of fundamental understanding of culture and history as well as a social/linguistic disconnect that leads to misinformation and bias.

Elite Theories of Foreign Policy Determinacy

A political theory arising in the early 20th century that argues that foreign policy is primarily shaped by a small group of elites such as government officials, corporate leaders, think tank experts, and military industrial actors rather than the general public or democratic processes. This suggests that public opinion has minimal influence on foreign policy outcomes and emphasizes the role of national security elites and business interests and is criticized for being undemocratic and prioritizing elite interests.

American Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC)

The largest pro-Israel lobbying interest group that advocates for policies that strengthen U.S.-Israel relations created in 1951 that influences congressional support and military aid to Israel. This shows the influence of interest groups in shaping U.S. foreign policy, particularly in the Middle East and is criticized by some for shaping U.S. policy to heavily in favor of Israeli interests.

Think Tanks

Organizations that conduct research and provide policy advice, often to inform government decisions on domestic and foreign policy, most prominent during World War ii. These influence the development and direction of US foreign policy through reports, briefings, and expert testimony but often have ideological leanings, affecting the type of policy they promote.

Main goals of U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War (1945-1991)

Containment of communism, support for allies, nuclear deterrence, and promoting U.S.-led international order (NATO, Marshall Plan, etc.)

Truman Doctrine

a 1947 policy stating that the US would support free peoples resisting subjugation, first applied in Greece and Turkey

Eisenhower foreign policy strategy

“Massive retaliation” and covert CIA operations; focused on nuclear deterrence and limiting conventional force deployments

Kennedy foreign policy during Cold War

emphasized flexible response, increased military aid, peace corps, and managed crises like the Cuban Missile Crisis

causes of increased involvement in Vietnam under Johnson

belief in the domino theory and need to contain communism; led to the escalation after the gulf of tonkin incident 1964

nixon’s major shift in foreign policy

Detente with the USSR and China; reduced US troop involvement via vietnamization

Reagan Cold War policy

military buildups, aggressive rhetoric (“evil empire”), and support for anti-communist groups (reagan doctrine)

Clinton Doctrine

advocated for democracy and market economies globally; used US. power for humanitarian intervention (bosnia, kosovo)

Bush foreign policy after 9/11

emphasized Global War on Terror, unilateralism, preemptive strikes (Afghanistan and Iraq)

Obama changes from Bush 43 foreign policy

emphasized multilateralism, diplomacy (iran deal, paris agreement), and cautious military engagement

key elements of Trump foreign policy

“america first” approach, skepticism of multilateral agreements, trade protectionism, and reduced US commitments abroad

Biden foreign policy trends

return to multilateralism, support for ukraine, strategic competition with China, and emphasis on democratic values

Trump 2.0 foreign policy proposals

transactional diplomacy, renewed emphasis on isolationism, tariffs, immigration restrictions, reduced foreign aid, distancing from NATO and other global commitments

Major U.S. military interventions post ww2

Korean War, Vietnam War, Persian Gulf War, Somalia, Bosnia, Kosovo, Afghanistan, Iraq, Libya, Syria

Reasons for intervention in Korea 1950-53

To contain communism after N. Korea invaded the south; UN-backed military action led by the U.S.

Vietnam as a turning point for AFP

prolonged conflict with high casualties and domestic oppression; led to more cautious intervention policies

outcome of Persian Gulf War 1991

Quick U.S.-led victory to expel Iraq from Kuwait; strengthened confidence in US global leadership and tech-based warfare

U.S. intervention in Somalia 1992-1993

Humanitarian crisis and civil war; ended after the failed Battle of Mogadishu and loss of U.S. soldiers

Rationale for US involvement in Balkans (bosnia/kosovo)

prevent ethnic cleansing and humanitarian disasters; NATO-led airstrikes and peacekeeping missions

US intervention in Afghanistan 2001

Response to 9/11; aimed to dismantle al-Qaeda and remove the Taliban from power.

Iraq War reasoning 2003

Claimed weapons of mass destruction and links to terrorism; later discredited but reshaped Middle East politics

US intervention in Libya 2011

NATO airstrikes to prevent mass killings during the Arab Spring uprising against Gaddafi

US policy in Syria

Complicated involvement balancing anti-ISIS efforts, opposition to Assad, and avoiding large-scale war

Overall trend from 1945 to 2025 in AFP

shift from global Cold War containment to selective engagement, with rising debate over unilateralism vs multilateralism

President’s role in foreign policy

Executive power, commander-in-chief of army and navy, treaty making, appoint ambassadors, recognize foreign govs/accepting foreign ambassadors,

Congress role in foreign policy

All legislative power (making laws), works for the general welfare of the American people, CONTROLS FUNDING, regulate commerce with foreign nations (tariffs, quotas, etc.), set foreign exchange regime, make laws for the seas, support and regulate army and navy, declare war, limit individual states’ powers in intl rel. (no treaties, tariffs, agreements), can restrict the president’s foreign policy powers (war powers act, congressional-executive agreements)

Supreme court role in foreign policy

Judicial power: review of international treaties and complaints

NSC role in foreign policy

Advisory body to the President including VP, secretaries of State/Defense, etc.; coordinated policy

Intelligence Community role in foreign policy

CIA (collections/analysis of intelligence and distribution of it; covert action; valuable to policymaker; intelligence on daily events/developments globally; analysis to policy papers), DNI (president’s daily brief, CIA does them but DNI in charge),

State Department role in foreign policy

Represent the U.S., advise the president on FP aka diplomacy (policy planning decisions), intelligence gathering, services (consular, passports, visas), reports (human rights reports, terrorist groups), embassies, foreign assistance programs

Interest groups role in foreign policy

lobbying on capitol hill, campaign donations, policy advocacy motivated voter bloc (sometimes aims are out of US interests)

Media role in foreign policy

informs public, frames issues, pressures officials, sets agenda, works with gov against public?

Public Opinion role in foreign policy

influences politicians, limits action, affects elections, shaped by media/events

Which institution’s role is more empowered to make foreign policy?

Congress

Which institution’s role is ACTUALLY more empowered in foreign policy?

President

US position on international trade policy

generally pro-free trade, with occasional protectionism. support for WTO, negotiates FTAs

US trade agreements example

USMCA (replaced NAFTA), TPP (u.s. withdrew), TTIP (u.s. withdrew), CAFTA-DR, bilateral deals with South Korea, Japan, etc.

US Trade Representative (USTR) role

negotiate trade deals, enforces trade rules, advises the pres on trade policy

US stance on foreign aid

uses foreign aid for development, security, diplomacy, and strategic interests (israel, egpypt, africa health programs, ukraine).
under trump 2.0: “US foreign aid is not aligned with american interests” and new policy: US foreign assistance shall no longer be disbursed in a manner that is not fully aligned with the foreign policy of the president of the US”

US engagement in multilateralism

UN, WTO, IMF, World Bank, NATO, WHO, OECD ;; but changes administration to administration

US support for international organizations

founding member of UN, lead in funding for WHO, World Bank, supports NATO missions, support ICC

examples of US skepticism toward multilateralism

Trump withdrew from WHO, Paris Agreement, and blocked WTO judges

global economic roles of the us

dollar as reserve currency, leading donor to IMF/World Bank, global financial regulation influence

significance of US dollar as the world’s reserve currency

increases us global influence, lowers borrowing costs, sustains demand for US debt

relationship between US foreign policy and global development

promotes stability and markets abroad, address poverty to prevent extremism, shapes favorable environments for U.S. interests.
examples: Millenium Challenge Corporation, Middle East Partnership Initiative, PEPFAR

major themes of US foreign policy in europe since wwii

collective security (NATO), containment of Russia, support for EU integration, expansion of NATO eastward, and cooperation on democracy, security, and trade

US approach to NATO burden sharing

The US expects allies to contribute more to defense spending (2% of GDP target). Disputes have arisen over perceived European underinvestment, especially under Trump

key AFP issues in the Middle East

counterterrorism (Al-Qaeda, ISIS) alliance with Israel, nuclear nonproliferation (Iran), oil security, and responses to Arab Spring, civil wars (Syria, Yemen), and regional instability