Chapter 4: Early Childhood — Lifespan Psychology

What is the 2nd stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development?

Preoperational Stage

What makes the 4 stages of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development significantly different from each other?

different QUALITY of thought

What was the first stage of Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, the age of children experiencing this stage, and what was it that they lacked?

Sensorimotor stage at 2 years old, lacking symbolic thought and language

By what ages do children overcome the differences of the sensorimotor stage and transition to the next stage?

2 to 7 years old

What are the many cognitive differences children have during the Preoperational stage?

1. Magical Thought

2. Egocentrism

3. Lack concept of conservation

What is magical thought?

children don’t question anything and believe what they see; reality versus pretend is confusing and is a struggle; no analytical thought

What is an example of magical thought?

A magician making something disappear; children don’t ask how did they do that, but tell the magician to “Do it again”

What is Egocentrism?

children lack perspective taking/theory of mind and cannot put self in others shoes; think everyone knows/feels the exact same as them

What was Piaget’s method of research to support egocentrism?

3 mountain experiment where the child thinks the doll sees one big mountain, when it can actually see all three

What is the concept of conservation and why do children lack it?

caused by centration, children look at what is the most obvious; what ever looks bigger means there is more (conservation of number) and what ever looks taller means there is more (conservation of mass)

Give an example of conservation of number

Question: Does the first row have more coins, the second one, or do both of them the same?

1st image: 8 coins arranged neatly

2nd image: 8 coins scattered in a bigger manner

Result: Children believe that the 2nd image has more coins because it appears bigger

Give an example of conservation of mass

Do the glasses have the same amount of liquid?

Image 1: both are small glass size with same amount of liquid

Image 2: one is a small glass size and the other is a tall, thinner glass size with same amount of liquid

Image 3: empty small glass size, one filled small glass size, and the tall, thinner filled glass size

Result: children believe the taller, thinner glass has more liquid

Animism (study guide)

attributing life-like qualities to objects

What do sociocultural and social learning theories emphasize?

social and cultural nature of all learning through others

What do sociocultural and social learning theories emphasize?

social and cultural nature of all learning through others

What does Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory say about children?

children are apprentices and develop in the context of culture by learning from adult and older peer mentors and through language & cultural tools

What is the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

when children learn best when they can almost perform a task independently; caregivers/adults simply guide

What is scaffolding?

best form of teaching where adults do not take over or show a child how to do something, but only provide minimal assistance within the ZPD and ask questions

private/inner speech & problem solving

children learn to think in words and do so aloud before eventually closing their lips; helps with solving problems or clarifying thoughts

How is media a cultural tool?

children become socialized to the world through the TV/screen time by copying what they see; it teaches them

How many hours does the average preschooler watch media per week minimum?

25+ hours

What is the APA’s recommendation for preschool year children (2 to 5 y/o) in regards to media?

maximum 1 to 2 hours of educational media per day

Why do children lack media literacy?

there are no adults or peers to monitor, so children are alone watching media and because of their cognitive difference of magical thought, they believe everything

What can magical thought cause children to believe in?

• believe in more stereotypes (gender/racial)

• world is a scary place —> anxious

• consumerism (unable to differentiate between advertisement vs show)

What is the Social Learning Theory and Observational Learning?

we learn how to act and what to do just by watching others (especially if they are same sex models)

Theory of Mind

• ability to think about other people’s thoughts

Theory-theory and questioning

tendency of children to generate theories to explain everything they encounter; if too complicated or does not satisfy their curiosity, generate own theories

What is the most important form of learning?

Observation

Define self concept

developing a sense of identity, which is an important aspect of preschool years

What is a preschooler’s self-concept? Why is this?

they have an inaccurate view of themselves that is more optimistic and an overestimation of their abilities; this is because of being egocentric—they do not compare themselves to others

How does individualistic cultures affect self concept?

promotes uniqueness of individual; emphasizes how you are special and should put yourself first

How does collectivistic cultures affect self concept?

promotes interdependence; emphasizes how you are connected with responsibilities to others and everyone should work together and is important

What country is the most collectivistic?

China

What country is the most individualistic?

USA

What countries are in between individualism-collectivism culture?

Central and south america

What are children’s concept of racial identity by ages 3 to 4?

Children see themselves as members of a racial/ethnic group

What is race dissonance?

children in minority groups internalize negative stereotypes from media and culture where most see the majority race as “better,” but this can be overcome race dissonance later

Why is race considered a social construct based off studies on genetics?

• race creates a very real social reality (labels made by society)

  • race does not exist to geneticist

  • 99.9% of all humans have the same DNA

• Genetic diversity defies classification

What continent is the most genetically diverse?

Africa

What is Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory shaped by?

social and emotional challenges at different stages of life

How many stages does Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory have and what do they each represent?

8 stages that each represent a social crisis or conflict

What shapes self concept when it comes to Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory?

resolution of each social conflict

What is the 3rd stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory and what are the ages of children during this time?

Initiative vs. Guilt; 3 to 6 (preschool years)

How is self concept shaped during the 3rd Stage of Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory ?

shaped by reaction of adults to trying new things and making mistakes

What is the best way for adults to shape a child’s positive self concept?

encourage children to learn and explore to build confidence; do not get angry at mistakes

Why is it good to encourage confidence?

children want to do and make own decisions

What makes a healthy initiative?

curiosity and self-confidence to explore

What makes unhealthy guilt?

fear to try new things, lack of self-confidence, and afraid of making mistakes

What age do children label themselves as male or female

2 years old

How preschoolers perceive and interact with their surroundings in terms of Gender Identity?

they copy same sex models and have rigid ideas about the “right behaviors” for boys vs girls

What is the #1 factor in socialization of gender?

modeling and observation

Why are children sensitive to gender “rules”?

Magical thinking causes them to see themselves majority and believe in stereotypes

How is gender a social construct?

gender stereotypes are learned, like through toys, clothes, environment

What age do children copy same-sex models?

by age 5

What is the concept of gender across cultures?

• Boys and girls are mostly the same, with bell curves overlapping

• all cultures have same gender differences

What is a gender difference between males and females that exists?

males are more aggressive and competitive (sports), while females are more verbal and less violent/competitive (playing house)

Why are these gender differences present in all cultures?

biology plays a role

Explain the 3 prenatal androgen washes

Default setting is female and if there is no wash, the fetus is feminized.

The first wash is for male genital development, and the second and third washes masculinization the brain

What are the biological sexes each individual has?

1. chromosomal

2. body

3. brain

What are differences in the Brain’s anatomy that makes it sexually dimorphic?

• In males, they have a larger hypothalamus

• In females, they have a larger corpus callosum

What differences appear by age 1 in the brain?

functioning and lateralization differences

What resulted from fMRI Research about the female vs male brain neural firing? What about transgender people? Why is this?

• Female brains have less lateralization where there is more neural firing in both sides

• Male brains have more lateralization where there is more focused neural firing in one side

• Transgender people show pattern of their gender identity

• shaped by prenatal hormone exposure, specifically androgen washes 2 and 3

What is the concept of nature and nurture and its affect on gender identity?

• Nature = biology makes us born with physical brain differences because of androgen washes 2 and 3 for males

• Nurture = gender socialization beginning at birth makes bigger differences than biology

What are the 2 factors that differentiate the different parenting styles?

1. high/low supportiveness

2. high/low demanding ness

What is the best form of effective parenting and discipline?

Authoritative parents

What are the two factors for authoritative parenting?

High demanding, high supportiveness

What are the goals of authoritative parenting?

learn to control yourself and engage in reciprocal, responsive, and bidirectional communication; make good choices and have empathy for others because it is right

What are the factors that define Authoritarian parenting?

High demanding, low support

What are the characteristics of Authoritarian parenting?

focus on obedience and fear through yelling or spanking; attempt to gain control and power; unidirectional communication

What are the 2 factors that define permissive parenting?

Low demanding, high support

What characterizes Permissive parenting?

parents avoid conflict and don’t apply consequences or limits for behavior; relationship is indulgent and it is low in control attempts

What are the 2 factors that define rejecting/neglecting parenting?

undemanding and unsupportive

What does effective discipline consist of?

teaching children that right choices are kind and caring, the importance of empathy and friendship, and convincing them why helps change long term behavior

When should you praise good choices?

do not just punish the bad, but reward good behaviors to encourage them and recognize when they are kind, caring, generous, or honest

What are examples of effective discipline?

nonviolent consequences (time out, losing privileges), teaching, empathy

What are examples of ineffective discipline?

threat and nagging, no explanations, using pain/spanking

What kinds of parents are most likely to spank or use pain to control their children? Why?

Authoritarian parents because it rewards them with immediate obedience

What is the consequence of physical punishment?

fight or flight decreases long term learning, increasing aggressive behaviors, fear and avoidance of parents, lying, sneaking, focusing on not getting caught, and failing to learn the difference between good and bad choices

How is spanking and brain development related?

Physical punishment harms brain development because pain activates the primitive fear center and decreases frontal lobe development (smaller and lower cognitive scores)

What can child abuse/beatings begin with?

spanking

What does the APA say about physical punishment?

It is never appropriate and never improves outcomes

What are the most common forms of abuse?

Verbal and emotional

What is the cycle of abuse (#1 predictor of abuse)?

Parents were abused in the same way and do not realize it was not okay

What is the 2nd predictor of abuse?

Parents blame the child because they have unrealistic expectations of children, becoming angry over normal childhood behaviors

Other risk factors that predict abuse

• abused as a child

• unrealistic expectations of children

• stress

• addiction

• poverty

• single parents

• social isolation

How does toxic stress impact brain development, especially in the frontal lobe?

when stress and fear pathways are strong and permanent, causing the alert system to always be on, the brain shrinks brain networks and causes children to lack impulse control, and have damaged memory, attention skills, self-control, reasoning skills, and learning abilities

What is the most common forms of abuse? (1st video)

neglect

Define neglect from the 1st video.

when children and their brains don’t get what they are expecting to get (usually biologically prepared to need to have responsive interactions with adults)

What type of interaction shapes the brain (1st video)?

serve and return; child interacts and caregiver notices and responds

What is the still face experiment (1st video)?

• Mother smiling and baby cooing

• Mother puts on a blank space with no response to baby’s cooing; no stimulation of the brain

  • stress systems of baby activates and is a sign of danger to baby biologically, causing distress

What are the 4 types of unresponsive care (video 1)?

1. occasional inattention

2. Chronic understimulation

3. severe neglect in a family context

4. severe neglect in an institutional setting

What is occasional inattention (1st video)

Occasional responsiveness and unresponsiveness

What is chronic understimulation (1st video)?

regular basis of little interaction with adults around them than is needed for healthy development

Can the effects of chronic understimulation improve? How? (1st video)

Yes, if children is presented with enriched learning opportunities and typical levels of serve and return

What is severe neglect in a family context? (1st video)

prolonged periods of inattention, lack of responsiveness, unmet basic needs by family

What is severe neglect in an institutional setting? (1st video)

children in a warehouse type situation (orphanages, transitional/temporary care or assessment facilities)

How do you reverse cortisol?

exercise and meditation

When can stress change the brain?

(2nd video)

if it is continuous and chronic

How does stress affect the hypothalamus pituitary adrenal axis?

the interactions between endocrine glands in the brain and the kidneys that controls the body’s reaction to stress activates and releases cortisol in response to stress

What happens if there are high levels of cortisol over long periods of time

(2nd video)?

it damages the brain because…

• it increases the activity level and number of neural connections in the brain’s fear center, the amygdala

• electrical signals in the hippocampus (assoc with learning, memories, and stress control, and inhibits HPA axis activity)deteriorate (decreasing stress control)

• brain shrinks in size because of the loss of synaptic connections between neurons in the prefrontal cortex that regulates behaviors

• fewer new brain cells formed in hippocampus, so it is harder to learn and remember things

  • sets stage for depression and Alzheimer’s disease