Memory Retrieval Failures: Cues, Contexts, and State-Dependent Effects

Retrieval failure

When information is stored in long-term memory but cannot be accessed because the correct cues are missing.

Cues

Triggers or reminders that help us retrieve information from memory, either external (environmental) or internal (emotional/physiological).

Tulving's Encoding Specificity Principle (ESP)

Memory is most effective when the cues present at recall match or closely resemble the cues present at the time of learning.

Context-dependent cues

External cues such as location, smells, or sounds; recall improves when the external environment at learning and recall match.

State-dependent cues

Internal cues such as mood or physiological state; recall improves when the internal state at learning matches the state at recall.

Godden & Baddeley (1975) - Aim

To test whether environmental context affects recall.

Godden & Baddeley (1975) - Method

Deep-sea divers learned word lists either underwater or on land and recalled them in either the same or different environment.

Godden & Baddeley (1975) - Findings

Recall was around 40% worse when learning and recall environments were different.

Godden & Baddeley (1975) - Conclusion

Environmental context acts as a context-dependent cue; matching environments improve recall.

Carter & Cassaday (1998) - Aim

To investigate whether internal physiological states act as cues for memory.

Carter & Cassaday (1998) - Method

Participants learned information either under the influence of antihistamines (causing drowsiness) or not, and then recalled it in the same or different physiological state.

Carter & Cassaday (1998) - Findings

Recall was significantly worse when the physiological state at learning and recall did not match.

Carter & Cassaday (1998) - Conclusion

Internal physiological states serve as state-dependent cues, supporting retrieval failure theory.