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Major Units Covered Evolution (AP Unit 7) Biochemistry (AP Unit 1) Enzymes (AP Unit 3) Cells & Transport (AP Unit 2) Cell Energy (AP Unit 3) Cell Communication and Cell Division (AP Unit 4) Genetic Basis of Life (AP Units 5 & 6)
CHONPS
Most common elements in living matter.
Ionic Bonds
Transfer of electrons between atoms.
Covalent Bonds
Sharing of electrons between atoms.
Hydrogen Bonds
Weak bonds between hydrogen and electronegative atoms.
Hydrophobic Interactions
Nonpolar compounds congregate together.
pH Scale
Measures acidity/alkalinity from 0 to 14.
Logarithmic pH
pH 3 equals 1/1000 hydrogen ions.
Cohesion
Attraction between water molecules.
Adhesion
Attraction between water and charged compounds.
Dehydration Synthesis
Joins monomers by removing water.
Hydrolysis
Breaks polymers by adding water.
Carbohydrates
Organic molecules with CHO in 1:2:1 ratio.
Monosaccharides
Simplest form of carbohydrates.
Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides joined together.
Polysaccharides
Three or more monosaccharides linked.
Glucose
Immediate energy source for ATP production.
Starch
Stored energy in plants.
Glycogen
Stored energy in animals, mainly liver.
Cellulose
Structural component of plant cell walls.
Lipids
Organic molecules not in 1:2:1 ratio.
Phospholipids
Make up cell membranes, amphipathic structure.
Proteins
Made of amino acids, essential for function.
Amino Acids
Building blocks of proteins, 20 types.
Protein Folding
Shape determines function in proteins.
Nucleic Acids
Store genetic information, made of nucleotides.
DNA
Double-stranded, contains deoxyribose sugar.
RNA
Single-stranded, contains ribose sugar.
Enzymes
Biological catalysts that lower activation energy.
Active Site
Region where enzyme-substrate reaction occurs.
Enzyme-Substrate Complex
Formed when enzyme binds to substrate.
Enzyme Specificity
Enzymes act on specific substrates only.
Enzyme Rate
Speed of enzyme-catalyzed reactions.
pH
Optimal acidity for enzyme function.
Temperature
Affects enzyme activity; high can denature.
Enzyme Concentration
More enzymes increase reaction rate.
Substrate Concentration
Higher substrate increases reaction rate.
Vmax
Maximum rate when enzyme is saturated.
Competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor competes for active site.
Non-competitive Inhibition
Inhibitor binds allosteric site, altering shape.
Coenzymes
Organic molecules aiding enzyme function.
Cofactors
Inorganic substances necessary for enzyme activity.
Active Site
Region where substrate binds on enzyme.
Allosteric Site
Site where non-competitive inhibitors bind.
Dehydration Synthesis
Process forming polymers by removing water.
Macromolecules
Large molecules including carbohydrates, proteins, etc.
Hydrophilic
Substances that attract water molecules.
Hydrophobic
Substances that repel water molecules.
Peptide Bond
Link between amino acids in proteins.
Nucleotide
Building block of nucleic acids like DNA.
Monosaccharide
Simplest form of carbohydrates, single sugar unit.
Polymers
Large molecules made of repeating subunits.
DNA Polymerase
Enzyme that synthesizes DNA strands.
Chloroplast
Site of photosynthesis in plant cells.
Nucleus
Holds DNA and produces ribosomal subunits.
Mitochondria
Double membrane organelle for ATP production.
Ribosome
Site of protein synthesis from mRNA.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Membranous network for lipid and protein synthesis.
Golgi Complex
Packages proteins for export from the cell.
Cytoskeleton
Network providing shape and movement in cells.
Lysosome
Contains enzymes for digestion and apoptosis.
Centrioles
Organelles involved in cell division.
Cell Wall
Rigid structure providing support in plant cells.
Endosymbiont Theory
Eukaryotes evolved from symbiotic bacteria.
Phospholipid Bilayer
Cell membrane structure; selectively permeable.
Fluid Mosaic Model
Describes membrane structure with moving components.
Simple Diffusion
Movement from high to low concentration passively.
Facilitated Diffusion
Passive transport using protein carriers for larger molecules.
Active Transport
Movement against concentration gradient using ATP.
Endocytosis
Process of engulfing materials into the cell.
Exocytosis
Release of materials from the cell via vesicles.
Osmosis
Water movement across a selectively permeable membrane.
Water Potential
Determined by solute and pressure potential.
Hypertonic Solution
Higher solute concentration than another solution.
Hypotonic Solution
Lower solute concentration than another solution.
Isotonic Solution
Equal solute concentration compared to another solution.
Surface Area:Volume Ratio
Increased ratio enhances nutrient uptake and waste expulsion.
Water Potential
Measure of water's potential energy in a system.
Osmosis
Movement of water across a semipermeable membrane.
Tay-Sachs Disease
Genetic disorder causing lipid accumulation in cells.
Cellular Respiration
Process converting glucose and oxygen into ATP.
Glycolysis
First step of cellular respiration occurring in cytoplasm.
Krebs Cycle
Citric acid cycle in mitochondrial matrix, produces ATP.
Electron Transport Chain
Series of proteins transferring electrons to produce ATP.
Chemiosmosis
Process of ATP synthesis driven by proton gradient.
Photosynthesis
Conversion of sunlight into chemical energy by plants.
Light-dependent Reactions
Reactions capturing sunlight to produce ATP and NADPH.
Calvin Cycle
Light-independent reactions fixing carbon into glucose.
Fermentation
Anaerobic process producing energy without oxygen.
Alcohol Fermentation
Conversion of glucose to ethanol and CO2 by yeast.
Lactic Acid Fermentation
Conversion of glucose to lactic acid in muscle cells.
Free Energy
Energy available to do work in biological systems.
Entropy
Measure of disorder or randomness in a system.
Substrate-level Phosphorylation
Direct ATP formation from ADP and substrate.
NADH
Electron carrier produced during glycolysis and Krebs cycle.
FADH2
Electron carrier formed in the Krebs cycle.
ATP Synthase
Enzyme that synthesizes ATP using proton gradient.
Proton Gradient
Difference in H+ ion concentration across a membrane.
Photosystems
Protein complexes in chloroplasts capturing light energy.
Absorption Spectrum
Range of wavelengths absorbed by pigments.
Acetyl CoA
Key molecule in metabolic pathways, derived from pyruvate.
