Psychology Research Methods and Science Practices Vocabulary

Vocabulary flashcards covering foundational concepts, perspectives, research designs, statistics, and ethical guidelines from psychological science practices.

Psychology

The scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

Mental Processes

Internal, subjective experiences such as sensations, perceptions, thoughts, beliefs, and feelings.

Behavior

Any observable and measurable action or reaction performed by an organism.

Psychodynamic Perspective

A psychological perspective emphasizing unconscious drives, motives, and early childhood experiences.

Behavioral Perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on observable behaviors and learning through conditioning and reinforcement.

Humanistic Perspective

A psychological perspective emphasizing personal growth, self-actualization, and individual human potential.

Cognitive Perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on internal mental processes like thinking, memory, language, perception, and problem-solving.

Biological Perspective

A psychological perspective focusing on physical, genetic, neurological, and physiological bases of behavior and mental processes.

Evolutionary Perspective

A psychological perspective analyzing behavior and mental processes in terms of natural selection and adaptive survival traits.

Sociocultural Perspective

A psychological perspective emphasizing how culture, social norms, and social environments influence thinking and behavior.

Biopsychosocial Perspective

An integrated perspective that considers biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors in understanding human behavior and mental processes.

Falsifiable

A characteristic of a scientific hypothesis or theory that can be proven false through empirical observation or testing.

Peer Review

The process where scientific research is evaluated by other experts in the field prior to publication.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after an outcome has occurred, that one would have foreseen or predicted it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge, beliefs, or predictions.

Empirical Evidence

Data and information acquired through direct observation, measurement, or experiment.

Scientific Method

A standardized step-by-step process of scientific investigation involving observation, hypothesis formation, experimentation, and analysis.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between variables.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study to verify if findings reproduce under different conditions or with different participants.

Reliability

The consistency, stability, and repeatability of a measure or research test results.

Validity

The extent to which a test or research study accurately measures or predicts what it claims to measure.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

The leading professional organization representing psychology in the United States, providing ethical guidelines and research standards.

Research Design

The overall framework, structure, or strategy chosen to conduct a scientific research study.

Methodology

The systematic, theoretical analysis of the methods applied to a field of study or research process.

Quantitative Data

Numerical data that can be measured and quantified statistically.

Qualitative Data

Non-numerical, descriptive data such as interview transcripts, descriptions, or thematic observations.

Likert Scales

A rating scale used in surveys to measure participants' attitudes or opinions along a continuous range of response options.

Structured Interviews

An interview method using a standardized, predetermined set of questions asked in a fixed order.

Survey Technique

A research method involving self-report questionnaires or interviews to collect data on attitudes, opinions, or behaviors from a group.

Wording Effect

The influence that subtle changes in the phrasing or order of questions can have on respondents' answers.

Social Desirability Bias

The tendency of survey respondents to answer questions in a manner that will be viewed favorably by others.

Naturalistic Observation

A research method involving observing and recording subjects' behavior in their natural environment without intervention.

Case Study

An in-depth, detailed investigation of an individual, group, or unique situation.

Correlational Research

A research design that examines the statistical relationship or association between two or more variables without manipulating them.

Third Variable Problem

The possibility that an unmeasured extraneous variable causes the observed relationship between two correlated variables.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, each representing the values of two variables, used to display correlations.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index ranging from $-1.00$ to $+1.00$ indicating the strength and direction of a linear relationship between two variables.

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables where both variables increase or decrease together in the same direction.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables where as one variable increases, the other variable decreases.

Experimental Method

A research method in which the investigator manipulates one or more independent variables to observe their effect on a dependent variable while controlling other factors.

Independent Variable

The experimental variable that is manipulated or varied by the researcher to test its effect.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is measured in an experiment to evaluate the effect of the independent variable.

Confounding Variable

An unintended extraneous variable that varies along with the independent variable, potentially distorting research results.

Operational Definitions

A precise, explicit description of how variables in a study are measured, manipulated, or defined.

Experimental Group

The group of participants in an experiment who receive the treatment or manipulation being tested.

Control Group

The group of participants in an experiment who do not receive the experimental treatment, serving as a baseline comparison.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance to minimize pre-existing participant differences.

Placebo Effect

Experimental results caused by expectations alone, rather than an active intervention.

Experimenter Bias

A researcher's expectations or preferences influencing the outcome or interpretation of a study.

Single-Blind Study

An experimental procedure where participants are unaware of whether they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-Blind Study

An experimental procedure where both participants and research staff are unaware of group assignments.

Placebo Condition

An inactive treatment or condition given to a control group to evaluate the baseline placebo response.

Sample

A subset of individuals selected from a larger population to participate in a research study.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the key demographic characteristics of the overall target population.

Random Sample

A sample in which every member of the target population has an equal chance of selection.

Sample Bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Generalizability

The extent to which research findings from a sample can be applied to the broader population.

Statistics

The branch of mathematics dealing with collecting, analyzing, interpreting, and presenting data.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical techniques used to organize, summarize, and describe numerical characteristics of a data set.

Inferential Statistics

Statistical methods used to determine whether sample data can be generalized to draw conclusions about a population.

Measure of Central Tendency

A single score or value that represents the central or typical point in a data distribution, such as mean, median, or mode.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a set of scores, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the total count.

Median

The middle score in a distribution when data values are arranged in numerical order.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score or value in a data distribution.

Range

The statistical difference between the highest and lowest scores in a data set.

Normal Curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution curve where most scores cluster around the mean.

Regression to the Mean

The statistical phenomenon where extreme or unusual scores tend to fall back closer to their average on subsequent measurements.

Positive Skew

A distribution where most scores cluster at the lower end, with a tail extending toward higher values.

Negative Skew

A distribution where most scores cluster at the higher end, with a tail extending toward lower values.

Standard Deviation

A computed measure of how much individual scores vary around the mean of a distribution.

Deception

Misleading research participants about the true purpose or nature of a study, permissible under specific ethical guidelines.

Confederates

Individuals who pretend to be regular participants in an experiment but are actually working for the researcher.

Debriefing

The post-experimental explanation of a study given to participants, disclosing its true purpose and any deception used.

Article Analysis Question (AAQ)

An assessment question type that requires students to analyze and critique a scientific research article or passage.

Evidence-Based Question (EBQ)

An assessment question type requiring students to support claims or draw conclusions using empirical evidence from data or text.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a specific score.

Bimodal Distribution

A frequency distribution that has two distinct peak values or modes.

Defensible Claim

A clear, arguable statement or conclusion that is supported by empirical evidence and logical reasoning.

Statistical Significance

A statistical determination that a research result is unlikely to have occurred purely by chance.

Effect Sizes

Quantitative measures of the magnitude or strength of an experimental effect or relationship between variables.

Meta Analysis

A statistical technique for combining and analyzing results from multiple independent studies on the same topic.

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

Ethics committees that screen research proposals to ensure participant safety and ethical standards.

Informed Consent

Giving potential participants sufficient information about a study's procedures and risks so they can voluntarily agree to participate.

Informed Assent

Agreement to participate in research obtained from individuals who cannot legally give informed consent, such as minors.

Confidentiality

The ethical principle of keeping all participant data and identifying information private and protected from public disclosure.