ABSOLUTELY need to know to pass the NYS Living Environment! You should start studying this ASAP!

Observation

What is seen or measured

Inference

A conclusion based on observation or evidence.

Hypothesis

An untested prediction. A good hypothesis states both cause and effect ("If then" statement) Starts with ("I thing" or "I predict") You should be able to create one.

Theory

A broad explanation of natural events that is supported by strong evidence.

Controlled Experiment

Compares the results of an experiment between two (or more) groups.

Experimental group

Group being tested or receiving treatment.
(ex: new drug)

Control Group

"Normal" group. Should be identical to experimental group in every way except one: it does not receive the treatment (i.e.: no drug, of given the original drug or a placebo).

Placebo

A sugar pill or other "fake" treatment give to the control group so subjects do not know which group they are in.

Independent Variable

Variable that is being tested (ex: new drug). In a graph the independent variable is always plotted on the X axis.

Dependent Variable

Variable that is measured at the end of an experiment ; the results (ex: does patient get better?) The dependent variable is always plotted on the Y axis.

Characteristics of a good experiment

1. Can be repeated by anyone and get the same results.
2. Have large sample size/many test subjects.
3. Are performed for longer periods of time.
4. Test only one variable.
5. Are peer reviewed-examined by several scientists to determine its accuracy.
6. Does not have to agree with the hypothesis. A scientist's guess is allowed to be incorrect - and usually is.
7. Is objective - the experiment and conclusion are fair and unbiased. Fact and opinion are not mixed.

All living things must maintain HOMEOSTASIS

All living things must maintain HOMEOSTASIS

To maintain Homeostasis

organisms carry out the same basic life functions: nutrition, excretion, transport, respiration,growth, synthesis, regulation and synthesis. (KNOW THESE TERMS!)

All life processes

make up an organism's METABOLISM.

Failure to maintain homeostasis

causes disease and death

Autotrophs

make their own food

Heterotrophs

eat other organisms

Photosynthesis

is carried out by plants , alga and blue-green bacteria (autotrophs). It takes the radiant energy of the sun and puts it in the bonds of sugar molecules. Photosynthesis occurs mostly in the chloroplast of plant cells.

Plants have stomates

small holes i their leaves that let then exchange the gasses used in photosynthesis.

Guard cells

open and close the stomates

Respiration

Organisms get energy by breaking the bonds of Sugar molecules. The released energy is used to make a molecule of ATP, which gives all organisms their energy.

Aerobic respiration

REQUIRES OXYGEN and yields more ATP (energy) for a molecule of sugar than anaerobic (no oxygen) respiration.

When Humans are forced to get energy form anaerobic respiration?

We produce lactic acid that damages muscles ("the burn" you feel during exercise).

Photosynthesis and Aerobic Respiration are opposite reactions!!!!

They are also important in cycling oxygen, carbon, hydrogen and water though the environment.

Diffusion

movement of molecules form high concentrations to low concentrations. Requires no energy (passive transport) Examples: In cells and In Body

Active Transport

requires the use of energy, usually moving molecules from a low concentration to a high concentration (against the floe of diffusion)

Osmosis

is the diffusion of water into or out of the cell. If water diffuses into the cell, the cell swells (get larger) and may burst. If it loses water (being put in salt water for example) it will shrivel up.

Regulation

coordination and control of other life functions.

A stimulus

is a change in the environment that you respond to

neuron

is a nerve cell

An Impulse

is the electrical signal by the nerves. Neurotransmitters are chemicals that help carry the impulse.

A Hormone

is c chemical signal secreted by different glands in the body. Examples of hormones include: insulin, adrenaline, testosterone and estrogen.

Receptor molecules

are proteins on the surface of the cell membrane that receive signals form the nervous and endocrine system. These are needed for your cells to communicate and work together.

The most common elements in living things are

(in order) Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen and Nitrogen (CHON)

Organic Compounds

have Carbon and Hydrogen (ex: C6H12O6 is organic, H2O, CO2, and NO3 are not). Organic molecules

Carbohydrates

are sugars and starches. All carbohydrates are made from simple sugars (like glucose) and they energy.

Lipids

store energy and include fats oils and waxes, They are made from fatty acids and glycerol.

Proteins

are made from amino. Proteins also make hormones and many body and cell structures, so as far as your body is concerned, proteins are by far the most important of these three organic molecules.

Shape

of proteins and how they fit together that determines what proteins can do.

Four specific jobs of proteins make sure you are able to explain what they so and how!

1) make enzymes (be able to explain what they do and how)
2) make receptor molecules on the cell membrane. These are used to receive
chemical messages (like hormones).
3) make antibodies
4) make hormones

Enzymes are catalysts

they affect the rates of chemical reactions

Lock and Key model

One type of enzyme fits one type of molecule. Change its shape and the enzyme will no longer work

Very high temperatures

Cause proteins and enzymes to lose their shape so that they no longer work properly. This is why high fevers are dangerous.

pH

The pH scale measure the strengths of acids and bases. A low pH (0-6.9) is a acid, a high pH (7.1-14) is a base, and 7 is neutral (water).

Cells

The basic unit of structure and function in all living things (except viruses) are made of cells

cell theory

all living things are made of cells

Plant cell

contains a cell wall, chloroplast and large vacuole

animal cell

does not have a cell wall or chloroplast and a small vacuole

YOU MUST KNOW !!!!

Cell membrane, Cell Wall, Nucleus, Chloroplast, Cytoplasm, Ribosome, Vacuole, Mitochondria

Cell Menbrane

is made of lipids and proteins. It shows selective permeability- that is only some molecules can pass through it (typically small molecules like water and oxygen) Large molecules (like starch or protein) need to be moved by active transport.

Note!!!!!!

Students often assume cells have a cell wall or a cell membrane All cells have a cell membrane, including those with cell walls (plants, fungi, some bacteria and protists). The cell wall is mostly for protection; the cell membrane is needed to control movement into and out of the cell. The animal kingdom is the only kingdom that completely lacks cell walls.

True/False

Organisms are classified mostly by evolutionary history. Those with common ancestors are grouped together.

Kingdoms

are large groups of related organisms (fungi, bacteria, protists, animals, plants).

A Species

is able to successfully reproduce among its members.

What is a scientific name that is made up of an organism's ?

Genus and species.

Tissues

are groups of cells specialized to do curtain jobs. Examples of tissues include muscle tissue and nerve tissue.

True/False: Cells are specialized into tissues?

True

True/False: Specialization or differentiation occurs because only some genes in the nucleus of a cell are "turned on".

True Almost every cells has a complete set of genes, but on those needed for the cells particular job are active. So while a red blood cell has all the genetic information needed to make nerves cells, bone cells and skin cells, all those gene are turned off, and only the red blood cell genes are turned on.

Do tissues work together to form organs such as (heart, lungs, and Kidney)?

Yes

True or False: Do organs work together in the organ systems such as (digestive system, nervous system, etc)?

True

digestive system

Food is broken down so that it is small enough to enter the body tissues/cells.

Fact

The digestive system is a one was passage through the body that includes the mouth, stomach and intestines.

True or False: does food move through the digestive system by muscular contractions (peristalsis)

True

True/False: Food is broken down mechanically and chemically by enzymes?

True

True/False: Undigested food is eliminated as solid waste. This is not excretion.

True

Transport / Circulatory System

Moves material (water, nutrients, hormones, wastes) through the body.

Red blood cells carry ?

Oxygen

White Blood cells?

fight disease

Plasma

is the fluid of the blood. It transports everything except oxygen.

Platelets

clot the blood.

Immune System

has the job to protect the body against pathogens.

What are three pathogens

viruses, bacteria, and parasites.

True or False: White blood cells are the main components of the immune system. Different w.b.c's have different roles.

True

Antigens

BAD !! cause an immune response.

Antibodies

are proteins made by white blood cells to attack antigens. ( Each antibody attacks a specific antigen as determined by its shape.

respiratory system

Physical respiration (breathing) provides oxygen needed for chemical respiration (which releases energy from sugar).

Diaphragm

is the muscle that allows breathing to occur.

You breathe faster when CO2 builds up in the blood

(NOT WHEN YOU NEED OXYGEN)

The Alveoli are very important because it is here

that the oxygen enters the blood (DIFFUSION) and CO2 leaves. The Alveoli took like microscopic sacs surrounded by capillaries.

Excretory System

removes metabolic waste from your body

Your body excretes

salt, water, urea and CO2.

Lungs excrete

CO2 and water and the skin excretes sweat

Kidneys filter

waste from blood and reabsorb nutrients.

liver filters

Toxins and dead red blood cells from the blood

Skeletal Muscle System

the function of bones,

True or False : Muscles only work in pairs.

True

The Nervous System

regulates your body along with the endocrine system.

What are the three parts of the brain ? You also will need to know what they do?

Cerebrum, Cerebellum, Medulla

The Spinal cord

controls reflexes and brings impulses from the nerves to the brain.

Endocrine System

Regulates the body along with nervous. Slower but with longer lasting effects.

Pancreas

makes insulin and glucagon which control blood sugar.

Adrenal glands

makes adrenaline when the body is under stress.

Testosterone (male)

sex hormones

Estrogen (female)

sex hormones.

Hormone levels are controlled by ?

negative feedback

Explain how different systems of the body work together to maintain homeostasis.

Ex: Circulatory and Respiratory Nutrients from the digestive system are transported to cells by the circulatory system. Wastes from respiration are removed by the excretory system. The nervous and endocrine system work together to control the body.

Disease and Disorders

Heart attack, stroke, cancer, Down;s Syndrome, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia, diarrhea, ulcers, AIDS, goiter, scurvy, rabies, meningitis, pneumonia, asthma, bronchitis, appendicitis, cold, flu

Causes of diseases

Pathogens

name some viruses

AIDS, COLD, FLU

bacteria

strep throat, food poisoning, syphilis