apes midterm review

sustainability

-ability of Earth's various systems, including human cultural systems and economies, to survive and adapt to changing environmental conditions indefinitely

environmental science

-interdisciplinary study that uses information from the physical sciences and social sciences to understand how the earth works, learn how humans interact with the earth, and develop solutions to environmental problems

ecology

-biological science that studies the relations between living organisms and their environment; study of the structure and functions of nature.

developing countries

-country that has low to moderate industrialization and low to moderate per capita GDP (gross domestic product)
-most are located in Africa, Asia, and Latin America

developed countries

-country that is highly industrialized and has a high per capita GDP (gross domestic product)

perpetual resources

-essentially an inexhaustible resource on a human time scale because it is renewed continuously
-solar energy

non-renewable resources

-resources that exists in a fixed amount (stock) in the earth's crust and has potential for renewal by chemical, physical, geological processes taking place over hundreds of millions to billions of years
-copper, aluminum, coal, and oil
-we classify these resources as exhaustible because we are extracting and using them at a much faster rate than they are formed

environmental degradation

-depletion or destruction of a potentially renewable resource
-soil, grassland, forest or wildlife
-used faster than it is naturally replenished if such use continues the resource becomes non-renewable (on a human time scale) or nonexistant (extinct)

ecological footprint

-amount of biologically productive land and water needed to supply a population with the renewable resources it uses and to absorb or dispose of the waste from such resource use
-measures the average environmental impact of populations of different countries or areas

recycling

-collecting and reprocessing a resource so that it can be made into new products
-collecting aluminum cans and melting them down and using the aluminum to make new cans and other products

non-point source pollution

-large or dispurced land areas that discharge polutants into the environment over a large are
-crops fields, streets, and lawns

input pollution control/pollution prevention

-device or process that prevents a potential pollutant from forming or entering the environment or sharply reduces the amount entering the environment

output pollution control/pollution clean up

-device or process that removes or reduces the level of a pollutant after it has been produced or entered the environment
-automobile emission control devices and sewage treatment plants

organisms

-any form of life

population

-group of individual organisms of the same species living in a particular area

community

-populations of all species living and interacting in an area at a particular time

ecosystems

-community of different species interacting with one another and with the chemical and physical factors making up its non-living environment

biosphere

-zone of the earth where life is found
-it consists of parts of the atmosphere (the troposphere), hydrosphere (mostly surface water and ground water), and lithosphere (mostly soil and surface rocks and sediments of the bottoms of oceans and other bodies of water) where life is found

Shannon-Wiener diversity index

-the idea is that the more different letters there are, and the more equal their proportional abundances in the string of interest, the more difficult it is to correctly predict which letter will be the next one in the string
-the Shannon entropy quantifies the uncertainty (entropy or degree of surprise) associated with this prediction.

atmosphere

-mass of air surrounding the earth

troposphere

-the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere
-contains approx. 75% of the atmosphere's mass
-the average depth of the trophosphee is deeper in the tropical regions (up to 20 km [12 miles]) and shallower near the poles (about 7 km [4 miles])
-the temperature of the troposphere decreases with height, while saturation vapor pressure decreases with temperature
-the pressure of the troposphere is maximum at the surface and decreases with higher altitude
-the temperature of the troposphere generally decreases as altitude increases

stratosphere

-the stratosphere is situated between 10 km (6 miles) and 50 km (31 miles) altitude above the surface at moderate latitudes
-the stratosphere is stratified in temperature, with warmer layers higher up and cooler layers farther down

hydrosphere

-earth's:
-liquid water oceans, lakes, other bodies of surface water, and other ground water
-frozen water (polar icecaps, floating icecaps, and ice/soil known as permafrost)
-water vapor in the atmosphere

lithosphere

-outer shell of the earth composed of the crust and the rigid outermost part of the mantle asthenosphere; material found in the earth's plates

carbon cycle

-cyclic movement of carbon in different chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment

phosphorus cycle

-cyclic movement of phosphorus in different chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment

nitrogen cycle

-cyclic movement of nitrogen in different chemical forms from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment

water cycle/hydrologic cycle

-biogeochemical cycle that collects, purifies, and distributes the earth's fixed supply of water from the environment to organisms and then back to the environment

oxygen cycle

-biogeochemical cycle that describes the movement of oxygen within its three main reservoirs the atmosphere, biosphere, and the lithosphere
-driven by photosynthesis and cellular respiration

aquatic ecosystems

-among the largest of Earth's aquatic ecosystems -include oceans, salt marsh and intertidal ecology, estuaries and lagoons, mangroves and coral reefs, the deep sea and the sea floor

producers/autotrophs

-organism that uses solar energy (green plants) or chemical energy (some bacteria) to manufacture the organic compunds it needs as nutrients from simple organic compounds obtained from its enviornment

consumers/heterotrophs

-organism that cannot sythesize the organic nutrients it needs and gets its organic nutrients by feeding on the tissues of producers or of other concumers; generally divided into primary consumers (herbavores), secondary consumers (carnivores), tertiary (higher level) consumers, omnivores, and detritavores (decomposers and detritus feeders)
-in economics, one who uses economic goods

decomposers/detrivores

-organism that digests parts of dead organisms and cast off fragments and wastes of living organisms by breaking down the complex organic molecules into simpler organic compounds and then obsorbing the soluble nutrients
-producers return most of these chemicals to the soil and water for reuse
-decomposers consists of various bacteria and fungi

energy transfer

-energy transfer is the transfer of energy from one object or material to another.
-radiant energy (radiation)
-heat conduction (travelling heat)
-convection (currents of warm air)
-mass transfer (hot material transferred to another location)
-electrical power transmission (wires carrying current)
-mechanical work (machines)

gross primary productivity (GPP)

-rate at which an ecosystem's producers capture and store a given amount of chemical energy as biomass in a given length of time

net primary productivity (NPP)

-rate at which all the plants in an ecosystem produce net useful chemical energy; equal to the difference between the rate at which the plants and ecosystem produce useful chemical energy (gross primary productivity) and the rate at which they use some of that energy through cellular respiration

O horizon

-high percentage of organic matter.
-within woodland area there are three distinct organic layers
-contain leaves, pine needles and twigs, and hummus

A horizon

-composed mostly of mineral material
-dark color of the A horizon is due to the mixing of humus with mineral

B horizon

-commonly referred to as the subsoil
-leaching occurs here
-rocks and minerals

C horizon

-commonly referred to as the substratum.
-rocks and minerals
-bedrock

sand

-naturally occurring granular material composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles
-highest permeability
-many air pockets
-coarser than silt

silt

-a granular material of a size somewhere between sand and clay
-medium permeability
-medium air pockets
-coarser than clay

clay

-very fine particles
-easily compacted
-low permeability

humus

-slightly soluble residue of undigested or partially decomposed organic material organic material and topsoil
-this material helps retain water and water soluble nutrients which can be taken up by plant roots

leaching

-process in which various chemicals in upper layers of soil are dissolved and carried to lower layers and, in some cases, ground water

biodiversity

-variety of different species (species diversity), genetic variability among individuals within each species (genetic diversity), variety of ecosystems (ecological diversity), and functions such as energy flow and matter cycle needed for the survival of species in biological communities (functional diversity)

niches

-total way of life or role of a species in an ecosystem
-includes all physical, chemical, and biological conditions that a species needs to live and reproduce in an ecosystem

microevolution

-small genetic changes a population undergoes

macroevolution

-long-term large scale evolutionary changes among groups of species

generalists

-live in broad niches
-able to withstand a wide range of environmental conditions
-when habitats are subjected to rapid changes, the generalists fare better because they are more adaptable
-examples: cockroaches, mice, humans

specialists

-live in narrow niches and are sensitive to environmental changes
-more prone to extinction than generalists
-when environmental conditions are stable, specialists have an advantage because there are few competitors as each species occupies its own unique niche (competitive exclusion principle)
-example: giant panda

extinction

-complete disappearance of a species from the earth
-it happens when a species cannot adapt and successfully reproduce under new enviornmental conditions or when a species evolves into one or more new species

species

-group of organisms that resemble one another in appearance behavior, chemical makeup and processes, and genetic structure
-organisms that reproduce sexually are classified as members of the same species only if they can actually or potentially breed with each other and produce fertile offspring

fundamental niche

-full potential range of the physical, chemical, and biological factors a species can use if it does not face any competition from other species

realized niche

-parts of the fundamental niche of a species that are actually used by that species

artificial selection

-process by which humans select one or more desirable genetic traits in the population of a plant or animal species and then use selective breeding to produce populations containing many individuals with the desirable traits

isobars

-isobars are lines drawn on a map joining places of equal average atmospheric pressure reduced to sea level for a specified period of time
-can be used to predict future weather patterns

high pressure

-typically brings clear skies
-spins counterclockwise in the Northern hemisphere

low pressure

-wind, dry, cool
-spins clockwise in the Northern hemisphere

climate

-physical properties of the troposphere of an area based on analysis of it's weather records over a long period (at least 30 years)
-the two main factors in determining an areas climate is the temperature (with its seasonal variations) and the amount and distribution of precipitation

weather

-short term changes in the temperature, barometric pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cove, wind direction and speed, and other conditions in the troposphere at a given place and time

latitude

-distance from the equator

elevation

-distance above sea level

seasons

-marked by changes in weather, ecology, and hours of daylight
-result from the yearly revolution of the Earth around the Sun and the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the

Coriolis effect

-as air moves from high to low pressure in the northern hemisphere, it is deflected to the right by the Coriolis force (spiral clockwise out from high-pressure areas)
-in the southern hemisphere, air moving from high to low pressure is deflected to the left (spiral counterclockwise in toward low-pressure areas)
-slowly blowing winds will be deflected only a small amount, whereas stronger winds will be deflected more
-winds blowing closer to the poles will be deflected more than winds at the same speed closer to the equator
-the Coriolis force is zero at the equator

convection currents

-sun heats atmosphere unevenly
-air closest to the surface is warmer and rises
-air at higher elevations is cooler and sinks
-this air rising and falling sets up convection processes and is primary cause of winds
-global air circulation is caused by and affected by: uneven heating of Earth's surface, seasons, Coriolis effect, amount of solar radiation reaching Earth's surface over a period of time
-convection cells created by areas of warm ocean water that in turn are caused by differences in water density, winds, and the Earth's rotation

desert

-A dry, often sandy region of little rainfall, extreme temperatures, and sparse vegetation.

savannas

-Characterized by the trees being sufficiently small or widely spaced so that the canopy does not close. The open canopy allows sufficient light to reach the ground to support an unbroken herbaceous layer consisting primarily of grasses.

prairie

-Prairies are made up of mostly grasses, sedges (grasslike plants), and other flowering plants called forbs
-Some prairies also have a few trees

chaparral

-Vegetation consisting chiefly of tangled shrubs and thorny bushes.

tundra

-A vast, flat, treeless Arctic region of Europe, Asia, and North America in which the subsoil is permanently frozen.

coniferous forest

-a terrestrial biome found in temperate regions of the world with warm summers and cool winters and adequate rainfall to sustain a forest
-evergreen conifers predominate, while some are a mix of conifers and broadleaf evergreen trees and/or broadleaf deciduous trees
-coastal areas of regions that have mild winters and heavy rainfall, or inland in drier climates or mountain areas

temperate deciduous forest

-grow between the tropics and the polar regions in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres
-four distinct seasons with a well-defined winter
-moderate climate

tropical rain forest

-equatorial zone
-experiences high average temperatures and a significant amount of rainfall

rivers

-a natural watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an ocean, a lake, a sea, or another river

streams

-a body of water with a current, confined within a bed and stream banks

lakes

-a body of relatively still water of considerable size, localized in a basin, that is surrounded by land apart from a river, stream, or other form of moving water that serves to feed or drain the lake

ponds

-a body of standing water, either natural or man-made, that is usually smaller than a lake

vernal ponds

-ponds which dry up for part of the year
-do not usually have fish.
-typically at their peak depth in the spring
-provide amphibians with breeding locations free from predation by fish
-have rare and endangered plant species

swamps

-a wetland that is forested

bogs

-a wetland that accumulates peat, a deposit of dead plant material—often mosses
-bogs occur where the water at the ground surface is acidic and low in nutrients
-sometimes the water is derived entirely from precipitation

watershed

-a drainage basin is an extent or an area of land where surface water from rain and melting snow or ice converges to a single point, usually the exit of the basin, where the waters join another waterbody, such as a river, lake, reservoir, estuary, wetland, sea, or ocean

littoral/intertidal zone

-the part of a sea, lake or river that is close to the shore
-sand dunes, and estuaries

limnetic/euphotic zone

-well-lit, open surface waters in a lake, away from the shore
-main photosynthetic body of the lake.
-produces the oxygen and food that support the lake's consumers.
-occupied by a variety of phytoplankton, consisting of algae and cyanobacteria, as well as zooplankton, small crustaceans, and fish

profundal/bathyal zone

-very cold zone because it's located below the range of effective light penetration
-the lack of light in the profundal zone determines the type of biological community that can live in this region, which is distinctly different from the community in the overlying waters.

benthic/abyssal zone

-at the lowest level of a body of water such as an ocean or a lake, including the sediment surface and some sub-surface layers
-many organisms found here are permanently attached to the bottom

oceans

-a body of saline water that composes a large part of a planet's hydrosphere

barrier/coral reefs

-underwater structures made from calcium carbonate secreted by corals
-colonies of tiny living animals found in marine waters that contain few nutrients
-most coral reefs are built from stony corals, which in turn consist of polyps that cluster in groups
-reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated waters

patch reefs

-an isolated, comparatively small reef outcrop, usually within a lagoon or embayment, often circular and surrounded by sand or seagrass
-common.

atolls

-an annular reef enclosing a lagoon in which there are no promontories other than reefs and islets composed of reef detritus

pelagic ocean/zone

-any water in a sea or lake that is neither close to the bottom nor near the shore can be said to be in the pelagic zone

mangrove

-mangroves are various kinds of trees up to medium height and shrubs that grow in saline coastal sediment habitats in the tropics and subtropics

estuaries

-partly enclosed coastal body of water with one or more rivers or streams flowing into it, and with a free connection to the open sea
-form a transition zone between river environments and ocean environments and are subject to both marine influences, such as tides, waves, and the influx of saline water; and riverine influences, such as flows of fresh water and sediment
-high levels of nutrients
-most productive ecosystem

eutrophic lakes

-the ecosystem response to the addition of artificial or natural substances, such as nitrates and phosphates, through fertilizers or sewage, to an aquatic system
-one example is the "bloom" or great increase of phytoplankton in a water body as a response to increased levels of nutrients

olgitrophic lakes

-a lake with low primary productivity, the result of low nutrient content
-have low algal production, and consequently, often have very clear waters, with high drinking-water quality
-cold, well-oxygenated waters. The oxygen content is likely to be higher in deep lakes, owing to their larger hypolimnetic volume
-unproductive lakes, characterised by nutrient deficiency, from productive, eutrophic lakes, with an ample or excessive nutrient supply
-common in cold regions

mesotrophic lakes

-lakes with an intermediate level of productivity, greater than oligotrophic lakes, but less than eutrophic lakes
-commonly clear water lakes and ponds with beds of submerged aquatic plants and medium levels of nutrients

eutrophic lakes

-commonly a lake or pond, has high biological productivity
-excessive nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, these water bodies are able to support an abundance of aquatic plants
-dominated either by aquatic plants or algaeWhen aquatic plants dominate the water tends to be clear
-occasionally an excessive algae bloom will occur and can ultimately result in fish kills due to respiration by algae and bottom living bacteria

runoff

-the water flow that occurs when the soil is infiltrated to full capacity and excess water from rain, meltwater, or other sources flows over the land
-this is a major component of the water cycle, and the primary agent in water erosion
-nonpoint source

wetlands

-land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally, such that it takes on the characteristics of a distinct ecosystem
-hydrolic soil

mitigation

-typically a part of an environmental crediting system established by governing bodies which involves allocating debits and credits