AP Psych Learning

learning

a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience

habituation

an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

associative learning

learning that certain events occur together.

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

behaviorism

psychology: (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.

unconditioned response (UR)

the unlearned, naturally occurring reaction to US, such as salivation when food is in the mouth

unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reaction (like food)

conditioned response (CR)

the learned reaction to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

conditioned stimulus (CS)

an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an US, comes to trigger a conditioned reaction

acquisition

the "learned" behavior or response; the CS and CR are associated with each other

extinction

the diminishing of a CR, when a response is no longer reinforced

spontaneous recovery

the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CR

generalization

the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit responses

discrimination

the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal an US

learned helplessness

the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events

operant conditioning

a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher

law of effect

Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, or where behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely

shaping

reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

positive reinforcement

increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.

negative reinforcement

increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; taking away a negative stimulus

primary reinforcer

an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

partial (intermittent) reinforcement

reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement

fixed-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses

variable-ratio schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

fixed-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed

variable-interval schedule

a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals

punishment

an event that decreases the behavior that it follows

cognitive map

a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. (For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have created a map of it)

latent learning

learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it LATER

insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem

intrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake; INSIDE

extrinsic motivation

a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment, OUTSIDE

modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

mirror neurons

frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empathy

prosocial behavior

positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior

Little Albert

subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear

Albert Bandura

researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment

John Garcia

Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)

B.F. Skinner

he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.

John Watson

behaviorist; famous for Little Albert study in which a baby was taught to fear a white rat

aversion theory

an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.

neutral stimulus (NS)

environmental factor that doesn't elicit a CR until it is repeatedly paired with the US (ex/ bell in Pavlov experiment)

cognitive learning

the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language

Stimulus

a signal to which an organism responds

reinforcement

in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows

conditioned reinforcer

a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer

reinforcement schedule

the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval

observational learning

learning by observing others; also called social learning

higher-order conditioning

a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)

Robert Rescorla

Conditioning works better if the conditioned stimulus acts as a reliable signal that predicts the appearance of the unconditioned stimulus.

Edward Tolman

cognitive psychologist; latent learning and cognitive map; discovered that rats create a mental map of mazes they ran, learning without a reward

emotional learning

recognizing emotions and learning how to manage feelings

taste aversion

a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation

contingencies of reinforcement

the occurrence of a reward or punishment following a particular behavior

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

neutral stimulus

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Desensitization

the tendency over time to show weaker emotional responses to emotional stimuli

anti-social behavior

negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior

theory of mind

an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own

vicarious reinforcement

process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior