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learning
a relatively permanent change in an organism's behavior due to experience
habituation
an organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it
associative learning
learning that certain events occur together.
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events
behaviorism
psychology: (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.
unconditioned response (UR)
the unlearned, naturally occurring reaction to US, such as salivation when food is in the mouth
unconditioned stimulus (US)
a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a reaction (like food)
conditioned response (CR)
the learned reaction to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)
conditioned stimulus (CS)
an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an US, comes to trigger a conditioned reaction
acquisition
the "learned" behavior or response; the CS and CR are associated with each other
extinction
the diminishing of a CR, when a response is no longer reinforced
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished CR
generalization
the tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the CS to elicit responses
discrimination
the learned ability to distinguish between a CS and stimuli that do not signal an US
learned helplessness
the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events
operant conditioning
a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished followed by a punisher
law of effect
Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, or where behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
shaping
reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
positive reinforcement
increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.
negative reinforcement
increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock; taking away a negative stimulus
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial (intermittent) reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance to extinction than does continuous reinforcement
fixed-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule
a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
punishment
an event that decreases the behavior that it follows
cognitive map
a mental representation of the layout of one's environment. (For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have created a map of it)
latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it LATER
insight
a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem
intrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake; INSIDE
extrinsic motivation
a desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment, OUTSIDE
modeling
the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so. The brain's mirroring of another's actions may enable imitation and empathy
prosocial behavior
positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior
Little Albert
subject in John Watson's experiment, proved classical conditioning principles, especially the generalization of fear
Albert Bandura
researcher famous for work in observational or social learning including the famous Bobo doll experiment
John Garcia
Researched taste aversion. Showed that when rats ate a novel substance before being nauseated by a drug or radiation, they developed a conditioned taste aversion for the substance.
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physiologist who observed conditioned salivary responses in dogs (1849-1936)
B.F. Skinner
he is famous for use of his operant conditioning aparatus which he used to study schedules of reinforcement on pidgeons and rats.
John Watson
behaviorist; famous for Little Albert study in which a baby was taught to fear a white rat
aversion theory
an aversive (causing a strong feeling of dislike or disgust) stimulus is paired with an undesirable behavior in order to reduce or eliminate that behavior.
neutral stimulus (NS)
environmental factor that doesn't elicit a CR until it is repeatedly paired with the US (ex/ bell in Pavlov experiment)
cognitive learning
the acquisition of mental information, whether by observing events, by watching others, or through language
Stimulus
a signal to which an organism responds
reinforcement
in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows
conditioned reinforcer
a stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as a secondary reinforcer
reinforcement schedule
the frequency and regularity with which rewards are offered; they can be based on a number of target behaviors (ratio) or on a time interval (interval); types include: fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval
observational learning
learning by observing others; also called social learning
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.)
Robert Rescorla
Conditioning works better if the conditioned stimulus acts as a reliable signal that predicts the appearance of the unconditioned stimulus.
Edward Tolman
cognitive psychologist; latent learning and cognitive map; discovered that rats create a mental map of mazes they ran, learning without a reward
emotional learning
recognizing emotions and learning how to manage feelings
taste aversion
a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation
contingencies of reinforcement
the occurrence of a reward or punishment following a particular behavior
positive punishment
the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
negative punishment
the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring
neutral stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning
Desensitization
the tendency over time to show weaker emotional responses to emotional stimuli
anti-social behavior
negative, destructive, unhelpful behavior
theory of mind
an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own
vicarious reinforcement
process where the observer sees the model rewarded, making the observer more likely to imitate the model's behavior
