Openstax Psychology Chapter 2

Empirical

grounded in objective, tangible evidence that can be observed time and time again, regardless of who is observing

Trephination

Practice of making a hole in the skull, allowed evil spirits to leave the body, curing mental illness and other disorders

D.A.R.E (Dare Abuse Resistance Education)

Police officers coming into the classroom to educate students about the dangers of becoming involved with alcohol and other drugs

Deductive reasoning

results are predicted based on a general premise

Inductive reasoning

conclusions are drawn from observations

Theory

well-developed set of ideas that propose an explanation for observed phenomena

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about how the world will behave if our idea is correct and is often worded as if-then statement

falsifiable

able to be disproven by experimental results, shown to be incorrect

clinical or case study

observational research study focusing on one or a few people

Generalizing

refers to the ability to apply the findings of a particular research project to larger segments of society

naturalistic observation

Observing behavior in its natural setting. It's critical that the observer be as unobtrusive and as inconspicuous as possible

observer bias

when observations may be skewed to align with observer expectations

inter-rater reliability

a measure of reliability that assesses the consistency of observations by different observers

Population

Overall group of individuals that the researchers are interested in

Sample

subset of individuals selected from the larger population

Survey

list of questions to be answered by research participants—given as paper-and-pencil questionnaires, administered electronically, or conducted verbally—allowing researchers to collect data from a large number of people

archival research

Examines records, whether archived as hard copy or electronically

longitudinal research

a research design in which data-gathering is administered repeatedly over an extended period of time

Cross-sectional research

a researcher compares multiple segments of the population at the same time

Correlations

Stronger the correlation, the closer the data points are to a straight line

correlation coefficient

Number between -1 to +1 that indicates strength and direction of relationship between variables. Coefficient usually represented by the letter "r"

confounding variable

unanticipated outside factor that affects both variables of interest, often giving the false impression that changes in one variable causes changes in the other variable, when, in actuality, the outside factor causes changes in both variables

Cause and effect relationship

changes in one variable cause the changes in the other variable; can be determined only through an experimental research design

illusory correlation (false correlation)

When people believe that relationships exist between two things when no such relationships exists

confirmation bias

tendency to ignore evidence that disproves ideas or beliefs

experimental group

gets the treatment or variable being tested

control group

the group that does not receive the experimental treatment.

Placebo

Peoples expectations or beliefs influencing or determining their experience in a given situation

operational definition

Description of how we will measure our variables

independent variable

Manipulated or controlled by experiment

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

participant

Subjects of psychological research from a sample group that's a subset of the larger population

Peer-reviewed

Articles are written by experts and are reviewed by several other experts in the field before the article is published in the journal in order to insure the article's quality.

Reliability

Refers to the ability to consistently produce a given result

Validity

Refers to extent to which a given instrument or tool accurately measures what it's supposed to be measured

IRB (Institutional Review Board)

Meets regularly to review experimental proposals that involves human participants

informed consent

A written description of what participan expect during the experiment, including potential risks and implications of the research

IACUC (Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee)

review and approve procedures. Committee must include a veterinarian and someone not affiliated with the facility.

systematic scientific research

research broken into clear steps

Emperical

based on observation or experiment and not on theory

Deductive vs. Inductive Reasoning

Deductive (top down)- Starting with general rules and drawing specific conclusions from them.

Inductive (bottom up)- Generalizing from specific instances.

Theory

A hypothesis that has been tested with a significant amount of data

Hypothesis

a supposition or proposed explanation made on the basis of limited evidence as a starting point for further investigation.

Falsifiability

a feature of a scientific theory, in which it is possible to collect data that will prove the theory wrong

clinical or case study

focus on one person or a small group because when you focus on a few individuals, you get an enourmous amount of data and insight into those cases

External Validity Threats

How well your research represents your population

conversion disorder

A rare somatoform disorder in which a person experiences very specific genuine physical symptoms for which no physiological basis can be found.

Naturalism Observation

observe a behaviour in its natural context

Jane Goodall

English zoologist noted for her studies of chimpanzees in the wild (born in 1934)

naturalistic observation

observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

observer bias

tendency of observers to see what they expect to see

archival research

method of research using past records or data sets to answer various research questions, or to search for interesting patterns or relationships

problems with archival research

researchers have no control over how the data was collected and no guarantee of consistency between data sets from one source to another

longitudinal research

A research design in which the same individuals are followed over time and their development is repeatedly assessed.

cross-sectional research

a research design that compares groups of people who differ in age but are similar in other important characteristics

Issues with longitudinal research

timy, money, sustained effectiveness, and survivor bias.

correlation research

the study of the naturally occurring relationships among two or more variables

correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between two things (from -1 to +1)

+ correlation coefficient

direct relationship

- correlation coeffecient

inverse relationship

Correlation and Causation

correlation does not equal causation

illusory correlation

the perception of a relationship where none exists i.e. moon phase and mood

operational definition

a statement of the procedures used to define research variables

experimenter bias

a phenomenon that occurs when a researcher's expectations or preferences about the outcome of a study influence the results obtained

single-blind study

study in which the subjects do not know if they are in the experimental or the control group

double-blind study

An experiment in which neither the participant nor the researcher knows whether the participant has received the treatment or the placebo

independent variable

variable that is manipulated by the experimenter

dependent variable

measured by experimenter

random sample

method of selecting from a population in which each person has an equal probability of being selected

random assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

alpha level

probability required for significance

Reliabity

Measure of the consistency and reproducibility of test scores when the test is readministered

Reliability

Ability of a test to yield very similar scores for the same individual over repeated testings.

IRB

Institutional Review Board, review research in advance to ensure ethical considerations are met

informed consent form

a statement that describes the study, your rights, and the researcher and formally requests participation

deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study or the events that will actually transpire

Debriefing

the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

IACUC

Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee, insure humane treatment

The scientific process is __________, both inductive and deductive reasoning.

circular

In order to assess whether viewpoints on decriminalization of marijuana for medical purposes change with age, four groups of participants, ages 20, 30, 40, and 50, are asked whether they support this issue. What is one flaw of this design?

social or cultural factors may influence the results, not age

Tuskegee Syphilis Study

Research study conducted by a branch of the U.S. government, lasting for roughly 50 years (ending in the 1970s), in which a sample of African American men diagnosed with syphilis were deliberately left untreated, without their knowledge, to learn about the lifetime course of the disease.

Krista and Tatiana Hogan are participants in a(n) ________ of conjoined twins who are joined at the head.

case study

Researchers are conducting a study where they have concerns that the participant's beliefs and/or the experimenter's beliefs may skew the results. Therefore, they chose to conduct a __________study.

double blind

A basic experiment involves at least __________ participant groups.

two

What is a limitation that affects the generalizability of research results?

inter rater reliability

The _________ group does not get the experimental treatment.

control

What would be the most difficult to research using the emperical method?

whether the id, ego, or superego is most responsible for emotional reactions.

An ___________ is a variable that affects both variables of interest and may falsely give the impression of a cause and effect relationship.

independent

frontal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that has specialized areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory, and judgement

motor cortex

an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

prefrontal cortex

part of frontal lobe responsible for thinking, planning, and language

Broca's area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Phineas Gage

railroad worker who survived a severe brain injury that dramatically changed his personality and behavior; case played a role in the development of the understanding of the localization of brain function

parietal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex whose functions include processing information about touch.

temporal lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language.

auditory cortex

the area of the temporal lobe responsible for processing sound information

somasensory cortex

area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

occipital lobe

A region of the cerebral cortex that processes visual information