geo exam 1

Environmental Geology

The interaction between human activities and geological processes.

Impact of Increasing Human Population on Sustainability

The human population is the primary challenge for sustainability.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to research involving observation, hypothesis formulation, experimentation, and analysis.

Hypothesis vs Theory

A hypothesis is a prediction or educated guess, whereas a theory is a well-supported explanation based on extensive evidence.

Big Bang Theory Evidence

Expansion of the universe and Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.

Nebular Theory

The theory explaining the formation of the solar system from a collapsing cloud of dust and gas.

Deep Time

A concept signifying the vast time scale covering Earth's history.

History of Life on Earth

Life began with single-celled organisms approximately 3.5 billion years ago, followed by multicellular life, dinosaurs, and humans.

Earth's Interior Layers

Crust (low density, thin), Mantle (high density, thick), Core (metal, thick, two layers).

Lithosphere vs Asthenosphere vs Lower Mantle

Lithosphere is solid and rigid, asthenosphere is solid and ductile, lower mantle is solid and hot.

Inner Core vs Outer Core

Inner core is solid metal, while outer core is liquid metal.

Seismology

The study of seismic waves used to map Earth's internal structure.

Meteorites, Volcanic Rocks, Earth's Magnetic Field

Meteorites are remnants from the solar system's formation; volcanic rocks sample the mantle; Earth's magnetic field results from movements in the outer core.

Continental Drift

The movement of continents, initially proposed by Alfred Wegner, supported by fossil evidence and geological similarities.

Seafloor Mapping Contributions

Sonar mapping showed patterns in seafloor topography; paleomagnetism indicated magnetic history supporting continental drift.

Types of Plate Boundaries

Divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries.

Characteristics of Divergent Boundaries

Seafloor spreading, lithosphere thinning, young ocean crust, earthquakes, volcanic activity.

Characteristics of Convergent Boundaries

Subduction zones, volcanic arcs, shallow and deep earthquakes, deep ocean trenches.

Characteristics of Transform Boundaries

Shallow earthquakes, land ruptures, and river channel formations.

Driving Forces of Plate Motion

Mantle convection, ridge push, and slab pull.

Defining Characteristics of a Mineral

Naturally occurring, solid, inorganic, definite chemical composition, crystalline structure.

Physical Properties of Minerals

Includes color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, magnetism, specific gravity, and reaction to HCl.

Element vs Isotope

Isotopes have the same atomic number but different atomic masses.

Types of Mineral Bonds

Covalent, ionic, metallic, and van der Waals bonds.

Mineral Characteristics and Classification

Mineral characteristics depend on their chemical structure and bonding.

Common Rock-Forming Mineral Groups

Silicates, carbonates, oxides, and native elements.

Ways Minerals Form

Through hydrothermal processes, precipitation from water/gas, solidification from magma, and solid state diffusion.

Definition of a Rock

A solid aggregate of one or more minerals.

Formation of Igneous Rocks

Igneous rocks form from the solidification of magma or lava.

Sedimentary Rock Formation

Form through sediment accumulation at Earth's surface.

Metamorphic Rock Formation

Formed from pre-existing rocks altered by heat, pressure, or fluid.

Rock Cycle

The cycle through which rocks transform between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic forms.

Intrusive vs Extrusive Igneous Rocks

Intrusive rocks form inside Earth, while extrusive rocks form outside.

Clastic vs Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks

Clastic rocks consist of fragments of other rocks; biochemical rocks form from biological processes.

Foliated vs Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

Foliated rocks exhibit layers, while non-foliated rocks do not.

Ways Rocks Melt to Form Magma

Decompression, heat transfer, and addition of water change melting conditions.

Magma Composition Variability

Magma composition varies due to original materials and processes like assimilation and mixing.

Bowen’s Reaction Series

Describes the order of mineral crystallization from cooling magma.

Fractional Crystallization

The process by which denser crystallized minerals sink in a magma chamber.

Steps of Sedimentary Rock Formation

Weathering, erosion, transportation, deposition, lithification.

Physical Weathering

Breakdown of rocks through physical forces without changing chemical composition.

Chemical Weathering

Breakdown of rocks through chemical reactions.

Transportation Effects on Sediment

The longer sediment travels, the rounder and smaller it becomes.

Depositional Environment Characteristics

Low-energy environments lead to small sediment grains.

Biochemical Sediment Formation

Forms through evaporation and precipitation processes.

How Metamorphism Changes Rocks

Metamorphism alters texture and structure through heat, pressure, and fluids.

Protolith

The original rock from which metamorphic rock forms.

Types of Metamorphism

Contact, regional, hydrothermal, and burial metamorphism, each with different causes and effects.