Lithosphere is solid and rigid, asthenosphere is solid and ductile, lower mantle is solid and hot.
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Inner Core vs Outer Core
Inner core is solid metal, while outer core is liquid metal.
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Seismology
The study of seismic waves used to map Earth's internal structure.
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Meteorites, Volcanic Rocks, Earth's Magnetic Field
Meteorites are remnants from the solar system's formation; volcanic rocks sample the mantle; Earth's magnetic field results from movements in the outer core.
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Continental Drift
The movement of continents, initially proposed by Alfred Wegner, supported by fossil evidence and geological similarities.
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Seafloor Mapping Contributions
Sonar mapping showed patterns in seafloor topography; paleomagnetism indicated magnetic history supporting continental drift.
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Types of Plate Boundaries
Divergent, convergent, and transform plate boundaries.
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Characteristics of Divergent Boundaries
Seafloor spreading, lithosphere thinning, young ocean crust, earthquakes, volcanic activity.
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Characteristics of Convergent Boundaries
Subduction zones, volcanic arcs, shallow and deep earthquakes, deep ocean trenches.
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Characteristics of Transform Boundaries
Shallow earthquakes, land ruptures, and river channel formations.
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Driving Forces of Plate Motion
Mantle convection, ridge push, and slab pull.
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Defining Characteristics of a Mineral
Naturally occurring, solid, inorganic, definite chemical composition, crystalline structure.
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Physical Properties of Minerals
Includes color, streak, luster, hardness, cleavage, fracture, magnetism, specific gravity, and reaction to HCl.
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Element vs Isotope
Isotopes have the same atomic number but different atomic masses.
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Types of Mineral Bonds
Covalent, ionic, metallic, and van der Waals bonds.
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Mineral Characteristics and Classification
Mineral characteristics depend on their chemical structure and bonding.
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Common Rock-Forming Mineral Groups
Silicates, carbonates, oxides, and native elements.
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Ways Minerals Form
Through hydrothermal processes, precipitation from water/gas, solidification from magma, and solid state diffusion.
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Definition of a Rock
A solid aggregate of one or more minerals.
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Formation of Igneous Rocks
Igneous rocks form from the solidification of magma or lava.
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Sedimentary Rock Formation
Form through sediment accumulation at Earth's surface.
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Metamorphic Rock Formation
Formed from pre-existing rocks altered by heat, pressure, or fluid.
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Rock Cycle
The cycle through which rocks transform between igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic forms.
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Intrusive vs Extrusive Igneous Rocks
Intrusive rocks form inside Earth, while extrusive rocks form outside.
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Clastic vs Biochemical Sedimentary Rocks
Clastic rocks consist of fragments of other rocks; biochemical rocks form from biological processes.
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Foliated vs Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks
Foliated rocks exhibit layers, while non-foliated rocks do not.
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Ways Rocks Melt to Form Magma
Decompression, heat transfer, and addition of water change melting conditions.
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Magma Composition Variability
Magma composition varies due to original materials and processes like assimilation and mixing.
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Bowen’s Reaction Series
Describes the order of mineral crystallization from cooling magma.
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Fractional Crystallization
The process by which denser crystallized minerals sink in a magma chamber.