Key Concepts in Agriculture and Urban Development

Agriculture

The practice of cultivating soil, growing crops, and raising animals to produce food and other products.

Food security

Having reliable access to enough affordable and nutritious food.

Mechanization of agriculture

The use of machinery to increase efficiency in farming and reduce the need for human labor.

Challenges to global food supply

Issues like climate change, conflict, and transportation barriers that prevent equal access to food.

Undernourishment

When a person does not consume enough calories to maintain a healthy life.

Columbian Exchange

The global transfer of plants, animals, and diseases between the Americas and the Old World after 1492.

Subsistence agriculture

Farming mainly to feed the farmer and their family, with little surplus for trade.

Commercial agriculture

Farming for the purpose of selling crops and livestock for profit.

Crop rotation

The practice of growing different crops in succession on the same land to maintain soil health.

Agriculture and climate regions

Types of farming vary depending on regional climates, like rice in humid Asia or wheat in drier areas.

Agribusiness

Commercial agriculture characterized by the integration of different steps in the food-processing industry.

Development

Processes that improve the economic, political, and social well-being of people.

Human Development Index (HDI)

A measure of development using life expectancy, education, and income indicators.

Primary sector

Economic activities based on natural resources like farming, fishing, and mining.

Secondary sector

Manufacturing and processing raw materials into goods.

Tertiary sector

Economic activities related to services like teaching, retail, and healthcare.

Per capita GNI

Gross National Income divided by population; a measure of average income.

More developed vs less developed countries

More developed countries have higher HDI, income, and industrialization; less developed countries tend to have lower indicators.

Industrial Revolution

A period of major industrialization starting in the 18th century that changed production and society. It led to urbanization, growth of factories, and modern economic structures.

Location factors

Conditions that influence where industries are placed, like access to resources or transportation. These affect how economic zones develop and the spread of industry.

Just-in-time production

Manufacturing strategy that keeps inventory low by receiving goods only when needed. This is common in global supply chains and influenced by transport and location factors.

New international division of labor

The spatial shift of manufacturing from developed to developing countries due to labor cost differences. Ties into globalization and economic restructuring.

Maquiladoras

Factories in Mexico run by foreign companies that export goods to the U.S., benefiting from low labor costs. They are part of the new international division of labor and are located near the U.S. border.

Central Place Theory

The idea that settlements serve as centers for goods and services for surrounding areas. It uses concepts like range and threshold to explain the size and spacing of cities.

Range and threshold

Range is how far people are willing to travel for a service; threshold is the minimum number of people needed to support it. Both are used in Central Place Theory to analyze urban hierarchy.

Primate city

A city that is disproportionately large and dominates a country's economy, politics, and culture. Often found in less developed countries and tied to uneven urban development.

Food deserts

Areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food. They show urban inequality and connect to undernourishment and health disparities.

Megacities

Cities with more than 10 million people, often with challenges like congestion and slums. Megacities show rapid urbanization, especially in developing countries.

Megalopolis

A large, continuous urban region formed by the merging of multiple metropolitan areas. Examples include the northeastern U.S.; shows how urban areas can expand and merge.

Concentric zone model

A model of urban structure with rings around a central business district. It shows how cities grow outward from the center and helps explain urban patterns.

Sector model

A model where cities develop in wedges or sectors from the CBD, based on transportation and income levels. This model highlights how urban development is influenced by social and economic factors.

Multiple nuclei model

A model that suggests cities develop with multiple centers (nodes) for different activities. This reflects how modern cities are complex and decentralized.

Edge cities

New business and shopping centers that develop on the outskirts of major urban areas. They form due to sprawl and the decentralization of cities.

Sprawl

The spread of urban development into rural areas with little planning. It leads to car dependency, loss of farmland, and challenges for sustainability.

Gentrification

The process of renovating and improving a neighborhood, often displacing lower-income residents. It brings investment but also causes social tension and housing inequality.