Sociology exam 2 chapters 5-7

What is a social group?

A collection of people who have something in common and who believe that what they have in common is significant.

What is an aggregate?

A set of individuals who happen to be in the same place at the same time.

What is a category?

A set of people who share similar characteristics and are typically defined across time and space.

How do primary groups differ from secondary groups? Give examples of each.

• Primary groups are small, tightly knit, and bound by strong emotional ties. Examples: family, close friends.

• Secondary groups are large, impersonal, and bound primarily by a shared goal or activity. Example: a company.

What is the difference between an instrumental leader and an expressive leader?

• Instrumental leader focuses on the group's goals, giving orders and making plans to achieve them.

• Expressive leader focuses on increasing harmony and minimizing conflict within the group.

What is the difference between voluntary and involuntary groups? Give examples for each.

• Voluntary groups: You choose to join the group (e.g., a club, social organization).

• Involuntary groups: Membership is assigned (e.g., prisoners, conscripted soldiers).

In the Milgram experiment, what was the difference in the participants’ response to a direct order as opposed to an appeal to values?

• Direct order: Resulted in non-compliance or refusal.

• Appeal to values: Resulted in compliance or less likely to refuse.

Explain groupthink.

The narrowing of thought in a group, where members come to believe there is only one possible correct answer.

Define reference groups.

Groups we use as standards to judge ourselves and others. "Normal" behavior is influenced by our reference groups.

What is the difference between ingroups and outgroups?

• Ingroups: Groups you feel loyalty to and identify with.

• Outgroups: Groups you feel antagonism toward and do not identify with.

Describe social networks.

Social networks are people (nodes) who are all socially interconnected.

What is social structure?

Stable patterns of interaction that persist across generations.

What are social institutions?

Behaviors and beliefs that produce and reproduce social relations.

How do functionalists view social structure?

Functionalists believe there is a general consensus on the social structure, and that societies must fulfill basic needs such as replacing and socializing members, distributing resources, preserving order, and maintaining purpose.

How do conflict theorists view social structure?

Conflict theorists argue that dominant groups support a social structure that conserves their power and maintains inequality.

What are the elements of social structure?

• Status: Position in the social structure

• Role: Behaviors attached to a status

• Role conflict: Too many demands from one status

• Role strain: Conflicting demands of two or more statuses

What is the difference between ascribed and achieved status?

• Ascribed status: Assigned at birth or involuntarily, hard to change.

• Achieved status: Earned through individual effort or choices.

What is a master status?

The most important status a person holds, which can influence how others perceive them (e.g., race, gender, occupation).

What is mechanical solidarity (according to Durkheim)?

Unity based on similarities, typically seen in smaller, more traditional societies.

What is organic solidarity (according to Durkheim)?

Unity based on differences and interconnections, typically seen in larger, more complex societies.

What are primary and secondary groups?

• Primary groups: Small, close-knit groups like family and close friends.

• Secondary groups: Larger, more impersonal groups where members may not know each other well.

What is an ingroup?

A group with which you identify and feel loyalty toward.

What is an outgroup?

A group you feel antagonism toward or don't identify with.

What is a reference group?

A group that influences your behavior by setting standards for what is considered "normal."

What is a formal organization?

A structured group designed to achieve specific goals, often with a clear hierarchy and set of rules.

What are the three types of formal organizations?

• Utilitarian: Membership provides a reward or benefit (e.g., a workplace).

• Normative: Membership based on shared values or goals, with no personal gain (e.g., volunteer groups).

• Coercive: Membership is controlled, and individuals can't leave without permission (e.g., prisons).

What is an ideal type in sociology?

A tool for categorization that simplifies real-world concepts to focus on key characteristics.

What are the characteristics of an ideal typical bureaucracy?

• Division of labor: Each person has a specific job.

• Hierarchy of authority: A clear "ladder" of supervision and power.

• Written rules: Helps in enforcement and consistency.

• Technical qualifications: Only qualified individuals hold specific jobs.

• Impersonality: Everyone is treated the same, regardless of personal identity.

What are some problems with bureaucracy?

• Bureaucratic personality: A focus on rules and regulations over human needs.

• Goal displacement: The original goals of an organization may be replaced with other goals over time.

What is ideology?

A set of cultural beliefs and values that justify a way of organizing society, including beliefs about inequality.

Why do structural functionalists say we have stratification?

Because it is functional for society.

What does the Davis-Moore Thesis argue?

Society rewards more important jobs with greater economic and social rewards. The more important the job, the higher the reward.

What are some criticisms of the Davis-Moore Thesis?

• It doesn’t explain how the theory works in society, just why inequality might be useful.

• Not all important jobs are necessarily hard to learn or come with high pay.

• It ignores the fact that not everyone has equal opportunities.

What did Karl Marx believe would happen in capitalist societies?

He believed that inequality between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers) would worsen, and eventually, the workers would overthrow the owners and end the capitalist system.

According to Ralf Dahrendorf, what prevented the revolution that Marx predicted?

• The capitalist class was too divided to be a single target for revolution.

• Workers became more organized through unions, which helped improve their working conditions.

• Legal protections for workers (like unemployment insurance) led to more job stability and prevented the revolution.

What are the three dimensions of stratification according to Max Weber?

• Economic class

• Social status

• Social power

What is socioeconomic status?

The combination of economic class, social status, and social power.

What is conspicuous consumption?

Buying products that show off your social position.

How can things like your musical tastes or fashion choices affect how people view you?

People use your tastes to judge your social position, background, and education.

What is stratification?

Patterns of inequality in society, often justified by ideologies (ideas that explain and justify social inequality).

What is the difference between a caste system and a class system?

• Caste system: Closed system where movement between social positions is not possible.

• Class system: Open system where social mobility is possible, though often influenced by factors like wealth and privilege.

What did Marx believe about inequality and stratification?

Marx believed inequality is not natural or necessary, and that capitalism is exploitative because the proletariat’s labor produces surplus value, which is seized by the bourgeoisie.

What did Marx predict about capitalism?

He predicted that capitalism would experience crises and that workers would eventually overthrow the system.

What does functionalism say about stratification?

Functionalism believes stratification is necessary for society to function, as it ensures the right rewards are given based on job importance, training, and talent. However, it assumes a fair system and overlooks discrimination and inherited privilege.

What does interactionism focus on in terms of stratification?

Interactionism looks at status symbols, such as conspicuous consumption, to indicate a person’s social class.

What are the three components of stratification according to Weber?

• Wealth

• Prestige

• Power

What is social mobility?

The ability to move up or down the social ladder, either within a person’s lifetime (intragenerational) or between generations (intergenerational).

What is intragenerational social mobility?

Social mobility within a person’s own lifetime. It is often harder than ideologies like "rags to riches" suggest and can be influenced by economic factors, such as depressions.

What is intergenerational social mobility?

Social mobility between generations, often influenced by privilege and structural factors that impact future generations' opportunities.

What is the difference between absolute and relative poverty?

• Absolute poverty: Survival is threatened because basic needs cannot be met.

• Relative poverty: Poverty is defined in comparison to the societal standard of living.

What is the difference between blaming the victim and blaming the system?

• Blaming the victim: Viewing poverty as the result of individual failings.

• Blaming the system: Looking at structural factors (e.g., economic systems, policies) that contribute to poverty.

What is the difference between the deserving poor and the undeserving poor?

• Deserving poor: Those who society views as worthy of help (e.g., children, elderly).

• Undeserving poor: Those seen as unworthy of help due to personal choices or behaviors.

What are the different types of poverty?

• Transitional poverty: Temporary poverty, usually due to job loss or crisis.

• Marginal poverty: Unstable employment, such as seasonal or part-time work.

• Residual poverty: Long-term, often intergenerational poverty.

• Working poor: People who work full-time or more but still fall below the poverty line.

• Feminization of poverty: Women are disproportionately represented in poverty, both locally and globally.

What are the consequences of poverty?

Poorer health and a lowered life expectancy.

How is poverty measured?

• Low income cut-offs (LICO): Based on community size and family size.

• Market Basket Measure (MBM): Based on essentials, used as the Canadian poverty line since 2019.

• GINI Index: A global measure of inequality within a country, based on various factors.

What concerns are associated with globalization?

it may lead to the exploitation of workers in developing countries.

• The power of corporations can sometimes outweigh the power of nations.

• Neocolonialism: Economic exploitation of other countries' workers and markets.

What is gentrification?

The process where wealthier people move into poorer neighborhoods, displacing the poor and leading to the closure of social housing, affordable businesses, and other services.

What is NIMBY (Not In My Backyard)?

The rejection of services for marginalized populations in a neighborhood, such as social housing, or the development of housing for the poor.

What are housing first programs?

Programs that provide housing without requiring sobriety first, which are more successful than treatment-first programs.

• Principles of housing first programs:

  • Housing first

  • Harm reduction

  • Client self-determination

  • Community integration

  • Individualized supports

What is sex as a category?

Sex is a biological category that distinguishes between females and males.

What is intersex?

Intersex refers to people who are born with sex characteristics that do not fit typical binary notions of male or female bodies.

Is sex a binary?

No, sex is not a binary.

What is gender?

Gender is a set of social and psychological characteristics that a society considers proper for its males and females.

Give an example of a characteristic, activity, or item defined as masculine.

Business suit.

Give an example of a characteristic, activity, or item defined as feminine.

Skirt.

What do we mean by gender performance?

Gender performance refers to gender expression, which is a matter of identity. It involves how individuals express their internal, deeply held sense of their gender.

What is transgender?

transgender refers to those whose gender identity does not match the biological sex they were assigned at birth.

What is cisgender?

Cisgender refers to people whose gender identity matches their biological sex.

What is sexuality?

Sexuality is shorthand for everything related to sexual behavior, including sexual acts, desire, arousal, and the entire experience deemed sexual.

What is sexual orientation? List the different orientations discussed.

Sexual orientation refers to who someone is sexually attracted to or not.

• Heterosexual: Attracted to people of the opposite gender.

• Homosexual: Attracted to people of the same sex or gender.

• Bisexual/Pansexual: Attracted to both their own and other genders.

• Asexual: Do not experience sexual attraction.

What are sexual scripts?

Sexual scripts are cultural prescriptions that dictate the when, where, how, and with whom of sex, and what that sex means when it happens.

What is heteronormativity?

Heteronormativity is the idea that there are only two genders, that gender corresponds to biological sex, and that the only natural and acceptable sexual attraction is between these two genders.

What is the difference between sex and gender?

• Sex: Biological characteristics (e.g., hormones). Sociologists do not primarily study sex.

• Gender: Social roles and rules that sociologists study.

Can people be nonbinary, two-spirited, or transgender?

Yes, people can be nonbinary, two-spirited, or transgender, reflecting identities outside of the traditional male/female binary.

How does gender socialization begin?

Gender socialization begins with assumptions made about us from birth, helping explain why gender rules feel powerful and "natural."

What type of society do we live in regarding gender?

We live in a gender-polarized and gender-stratified society.

What was the Terman-Miles test, and why is it important?

The Terman-Miles test linked gender identity to brain differences, labeling "inverted" gender identity as a pathology (illness). Sociologists disagree with this perspective.

What does the Functionalist theory say about gender differences?

Functionalists argue that gender differences are necessary for society:

• Instrumental role: Male/husband.

• Expressive role: Female/wife.

What does the Conflict theory say about gender differences?

Conflict theorists argue that gender differences are socially constructed power differences.

What does the Interactionist theory say about gender?

Interactionists believe that we perform and embody gender. Performances that don't follow socially accepted scripts may be punished or rejected.

What are the different feminist perspectives on gender conflict?

• Liberal: Seeks equality with men.

• Socialist: Examines women's exploitation under capitalism, both at work and at home.

• Radical: Focuses on intimate oppression (e.g., control of birth control, sexual harassment, assault).

• Intersectional/Transnational: Critiques earlier feminisms for being white, middle-class, and western. It fights the matrix of domination (racism, homophobia, transphobia) both within and outside the movement.

How has domestic labor changed since the 1970s?

Women still do more domestic labor than men, though this has shifted somewhat since the 1970s. However, women are still more likely to do the "second shift" (work at home after a day of paid labor).

How does labor outside the home differ between genders?

• Women are more likely to work in jobs that are "gendered" female.

• A wage gap still exists in Canada: women earn about $0.89-$0.90 for every $1.00 men make.

• Women experience a motherhood penalty, earning $0.85 for every $1.00 men make, which lasts up to five years after returning to work. Fathers do not experience this penalty.

What is the Human Capital Thesis regarding the wage gap?

The Human Capital Thesis, a functionalist perspective, argues that the wage gap is due to different levels of skill, education, and experience. However, research shows that 11% of the wage gap cannot be explained by these differences.

What is the "Glass Ceiling"?

the Glass Ceiling is the invisible barrier that prevents women and other marginalized groups from advancing in their careers. This contributes to the wage gap due to discrimination.