learning

Preparedness

Species-specific predispositions to be conditioned in certain ways and not others

Learning

refers to a relatively durable change in behavior or knowledge that is due to experience.

classical or pavlovian conditioning

is a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. Sometimes called Pavlovian conditioning.

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

is a stimulus that evokes an unconditioned response without previous conditioning.

unconditioned response (UCR)

is an unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning.

conditioned stimulus (CS)

is a previous neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response.

conditioned response (CR)

is a learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning.

Trial

in classical conditioning consists of any presentation of a stimulus or pair of stimuli.

Acquisition

refers to the initial stage of learning something

Extinction

the gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response tendency.

spontaneous recovery

is the reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non-exposure to the conditioned stimulus

stimulus generalization

occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

stimulus discrimination

occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus.

higher-order conditioning

in which a conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus.

operant conditioning

is a form of learning in which voluntary responses come to be controlled by their consequences.

Reinforcement

occurs when an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.

skinner box or operant chamber

is a small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is systematically recorded while the consequences of the response are controlled.

reinforcement contingencies

are the circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers

cumulative recorder

creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time.

Shaping

the reinforcement of closer approximations of a desired response.

resistance to extinction

occurs when an organism continues to make a response after delivery of the reinforcer for it has been terminated.

discriminative stimuli

are cues that influence operant behavior by indicating the probable consequences (reinforcement or nonreinforcement) of a response.

primary reinforcers

are events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.

secondary or conditioned reinforcers

are events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers.

schedule of reinforcers

is a specific pattern of presentation of reinforcers over time.

continuous reinforcement

occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.

intermittent or partial reinforcement

occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time.

fixed-ratio (FR) schedule

the reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.

variable -ratio (VR) schedule

the reinforcer is given after a variable number of nonreinforced responses

fixed-interval (FI) schedule

the reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.

variable -interval (VI) schedule

the reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.

Positive reinforcement

occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.

negative reinforcement

occurs when a response is strengthened because it is follow by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus.

escape learning

an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation.

avoidance learning

an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring.

Punishment

occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response.

observational learning

occurs when an organisms responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models.

behavior modification

is a systematic approach to changing behavior through the application of the principles of conditioning.

Phobias

an irrational fear of specific objects or situations

law of effect

if a response in the presence of stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened

instinctive drift

occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with conditioning processes

latent learning

learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs

observational learning

occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models