AP Psychology Unit Zero: Scientific Research Methods

Vocabulary flashcards generated from AP Psychology Unit Zero lecture notes on research methods, statistics, experimental design, and ethical guidelines.

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

Empirical Evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation.

Scientific Method

A systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiable

Capable of being disproved by experimental results.

Peer Review

A process by which something proposed (as for research or publication) is evaluated by a group of experts in the appropriate field.

Replication

The action of repeating a study, using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced.

Reliability

The consistency of a research study or measuring test.

Validity

The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

The American Psychological Association (APA)

A professional organization representing psychologists in the United States.

Quantitative Data

Information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down with numbers.

Qualitative Data

Descriptive information, which often comes from interviews, focus groups, or artistic depictions such as photographs.

Likert Scales

A psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and is the most widely used scale in survey research.

Structured Interviews

A quantitative research method where the interviewer follows a set sequence of questions.

Survey Technique

A research technique that involves the collection of information from a sample of individuals through their responses to questions.

Wording Effect

The effect that question phrasing and order have on survey data.

Social Desirability Bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation or control by the researcher.

Case Study

An in-depth study of a single person, group, event, or community.

Correlational Research

A type of non-experimental research method, which studies the relationship between two variables with the help of statistical analysis.

Third Variable Problem

A form of confounding in which a third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two others.

Scatterplot

A graphical representation of the values of two variables for a set of data.

Correlation Coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between two things (from $-1$ to $+1$).

Positive Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which both variables move in the same direction, indicating a direct relationship.

Negative Correlation

A relationship between two variables in which the variables move in opposite directions, indicating an inverse relationship.

Single-Blind Study

A study in which the participants do not know whether they are in the control group or the experimental group but the researchers do.

Double-Blind Study

A study in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment.

Placebo Condition

A condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered.

Sample

A subset of individuals from a larger population, used to conduct research.

Representative Sample

A sample that accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Random Sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Sample Bias

A bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others.

Generalizability

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others.

Experimental Method

A method of research where the researcher manipulates one variable, and controls/randomizes the rest of the variables.

Independent Variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher.

Dependent Variable

The variable that is tested and measured in an experiment.

Confounding Variable

A variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable causing a spurious association.

Operational Definitions

Specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the variable being tested.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the test variable.

Random Assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Experimenter Bias

A process where the scientists performing the research influence the results, in order to portray a certain outcome.

Statistics

A branch of mathematics dealing with the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of masses of numerical data.

Descriptive Statistics

Statistics that summarize the data collected in a study.

Inferential Statistics

Statistics that allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population based on a sample of data.

Measure of Central Tendency

A statistical measure that identifies a single value as representative of an entire distribution.

Mean

The average of a set of numerical values, calculated by adding all numbers together and dividing by the count of the numbers.

Median

The middle value in a list of numbers arranged in order.

Mode

The value that appears most frequently in a set of data.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset, calculated by subtracting the smallest number from the largest.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped curve that represents a distribution of values, frequencies, or probabilities so that most measurements are concentrated around the middle.

Standard Deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Percentile Rank

The percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it.

Bimodal Distribution

A distribution that shows two different peaks or modes in the frequency of occurrences.

Statistical Significance

A metric that checks if the result of an experiment is probably true or just happened by chance.

Effect Sizes

A metric that measures how big the impact of something is in an experiment.

Regression to the Mean

The phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement.

Positive Skew

Occurs when more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few really high numbers stretch the average higher.

Negative Skew

Occurs when more numbers in a list are on the higher side, but a few really low numbers pull the average down.

Meta Analysis

A statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies.

Institutional Review Boards (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects, ensuring that ethical standards are met.

Informed Consent

Permission granted with the knowledge of the possible consequences, typically given with full knowledge of the possible risks and benefits.

Informed Assent

Agreement by a minor or other parties not able to give legal consent to participate in the activity.

Confidentiality

The requirement that private or sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it.

Deception

The act of misleading or wrongly informing someone about the true nature of a situation.

Confederates

Individuals who appear to be participants in a study but are actually part of the research team.

Debriefing

Providing participants in a study with a full explanation of the study after its completion, including the purpose and any deceptions used.