AP Psych Learning Unit

Learning

The process of acquiring through experience new and relatively enduring information or behaviors

Habituation

Decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequence (as in operant conditioning)

Stimulus

Any event or situation that evokes a response

Respondent behavior

Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus

Operant behavior

Behavior that operated on the environment, producing consequences

Cognitive learning

The acquisition of mental information, wether by observing events, by watching others, or through language.

Classical Conditioning (CC)

A type of learning in which we link two or more stimuli. The first stimuli comes to elicit behavior in anticipation of the second stimulus.

Pavlov’s Classical experiment

The first stimuli (a tone) comes to elicit behavior (drooling) in anticipation of the second stimulus (food)

Behaviorism

The view that psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes. Most psychologists agree with (1) but not (2). all behaviors are learned through interaction with the environment!!

Neutral stimulus (NS)

In classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits (evokes/triggers) no response before conditioning

Unconditioned Response (UR)

In classical conditioning, an unlearned, naturally occuring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US)

UR and US in Pavlovs Classical Experiment

The naturally occuring response (salivation) to an unconditioned stimulus (food in the mouth)

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

In CC, a stimulus that unconditionally-naturally and automatically- triggers an unconditioned response, UR)

Conditioned Response (CR)

In CC, a learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

In CC, an originally neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US), comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

Acquisition (CC)

In CC, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.

Acquisition (OC)

The strengthening of a reinforced response

Higher-order Conditioning

A procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus.

Example of Higher-Order Conditioning

An animal that has learned that a tone predict food might then learn that a light predicts the tone, and begins to respond to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning)

Extinction

The diminishing of a conditioned respond

Extinction (CC)

When an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS)

Extinction (OC)

When a response is no longer reinforced.

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response

Generalization

The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.

Generaization (OC)

When responses learned in one situation occur in other, similar situations)

Discrimination (CC)

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and a similar stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned response.

Discrimination (OC)

The ability to distinguish responses that are reinforced from similar responses that are not reinforced

Discrimination (Social Psychology)

Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members

Operant Conditioning

A method of learning that employs rewards and punishments for certain behavior. An association is made between a behavior and consequence (whether negative or positive) for that behavior

Law of Effect

Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber

In operant conditioning research, a chamber (also known as a *Skinner box* containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a food or water reinforcer; attached devices record the animal’s rate of bar pressing or key pecking.

Reinforcement

In operant conditioning, any event that *strengthens* the behavior it follows

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior

Discriminative Stimulus

In operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)

Positive Reinforcement

Any stimulus that, when *presented* after a response, strengthens the response

Negative Reinforcement

Any stimulus that, when *removed* after a response, strengthens the response. (NOT punishment)

(Negative reinforcment) increasing behaviors by…

Stopping or reducing aversive stimuli

(Positive reinforcement) increasing behaviors by presnting….

Positive reinforcers

Primary Reinforcer

An innately (natural) reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need

Conditioned Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through its association with a primary reinforcer; also known as *secondary reinforcer*

Reinforcement Schedule

A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced

Continuous Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcing the desired response everytime it occurs

Partial (intermittent) Reinforcement Schedule

Reinforcing a response only part of the time; results in slower acquisition of a response but much greater resistance than does continuous reinforcement

Fixed-Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of \[correct\] responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule

In operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses

Fixed-Interval Schedule

In OC, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a *specified* time has passed.

Variable-Interval Schedule

In OC, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at *unpredictable* time intervals.

Punishment

An event that tends to *decrease* the behavior that it follows

Biofeedback

A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state. Ex. Blood pressure or muscle tension

Preparedness

A biological predisposition to learn associations, such as between taste an nausea, that have survival value

Instinctive Drift

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert tp biologically predisposed patterns

Cognitive Map

A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment. For example, after exploring a maze, rats act as if they have learned a cognitive map of it.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive (motivation) to demonstrate it.

You never participate in class. You take a test and get a 90% on it. You know the information but did not show it. This is an example of _______ _______.

Latent learning

Insight

A sudden realization of a problem’s solution; contrasts with strategy based solutions

Intrisic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake

Extrinsic Motivation

A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid threatened punishment

Problem-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress directly- by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor

Emotion-Focused Coping

Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to our stress reaction

Personal Control

Our sense of controlling our environment rather than feeling helpless.

Learned Helplessness

The hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or person learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events (events that cause dislike or disinclination)

External Locus of Control

The perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate

Internal Locus of Control

The perception that we control our own fate

Self-Control

The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards

Observational Learning

Learning by observing others (Also called *social learning*)

Modeling

The process of observign and imitating a specific behavior

Mirror Neurons

Frontal lobe neurons that some scientists believe fire when we perform certain actions or observe another doing so. The brain’s mirroring of another’s action may enable imitation and empathy.

Prosocial Behavior

Positive, constructive, helpful behavior. The opposite of antisocial behavior.

Ivan Pavlov

Russian experimental neurologist, psychologist, and physiologist known for his classical conditioning through his experiments with dogs. (Food and saliva)

John B. Watson

American psychologist who popularized the theory of behaviorism, establishing it as a psychological school. (Psychology (1) should be an objective science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes.)

B. F. Skinner

American psychologist, known for the operant conditioning process, he notion of schedules of reinforcement, and the introduction for response rates as a dependent variable in research.

Edward L. Thorndike

American psychologist, first to apply psychological principles to the area of learning. His research led to many theories and laws of learning.

John Garcia

American psychologist most known for his research on taste aversion.

Robert Rescorla

American psychologist, known for providing a bridge between behaviorism, the predominant theory in psychology in the mid 20th century and cognitive science.

Edward C. Tolman

American psychologist, developed a system of psychology known as purposive, or molar, behaviorism, which attempts to explore the entire action of the total organism

Albert Bandura

Canadian-American psychologist, known for groundbreaking research on the importance of learning by observing others.

This is known as the…

Reinforcement/Punishment Matrix

Primary reinforcers are things that are \[mostly\] needed for ____.

Survival

Secondary reinforcers are things that are learned/taught to have ____.

Rewards

A primary reinforcer for learning is learning new information. A secondary reinforcer for learning is _____ ______.

Good grades

Token Economy

A method based on operant conditioning where individuals are rewarded with tokens, which act as a secondary reinforcer. The tokens can be redeemed for a variety of rewards.

Premack Principle

The idea that a more preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity.

Lottery tickets are examples of __ schedules. (Answer with 2 letters)

VR

Random drug testing is an example of a __ schedule (Answer with 2 letters)

VI

For every 8 questions you get correct, your teacher rewards you with a lolipop. This is an example of a __ schedule. (Answer with 2 letters)

FR

Getting a paycheck every 2 Sundays is an example of a __ schedule. (Answer with 2 letters)

FI

Unlike reinforcement, ____ must be administered consistently. Intermittent _________ is far less effective than _______ delivered after every undesired behavior. (Only one word for the answer, just used 3 times)

Punishment

Not punishing every misbehavior can have the effect of _______ the behavior.

Rewarding

Classical conditioning is revolved around _____ behavior.

Involuntary

Operant conditioning revolves around _____ behavior.

Voluntary

Peer pressure is an example of _____ learning.

Observational

Learning is _______, not just mechanical.

Purposeful

These actions can increase your _____ habits.

* Pay attention, read/recite information you have heard.


* Make flash cards—USE THEM
* Redo problems or questions on a lengthy assignment or test.
* Make meaningful connections with the information you are learning. 
* Find a study partner—you haven’t mastered something until you can teach it to someone else.
* Study material in small dose—not the night of the exam. 

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Study

Response chain

Learned reactions that follow one another in sequence, each reaction producing the signal for the next.

Phobias are often created by classical conditioning and maintained by _______ conditioning.

Operant