Unit 3: Development and Learning

Developmental psychology

The study of physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the lifespan.

Stability and change

A concept that examines which traits persist or change as individuals develop.

Nature and nurture

The debate over how much behavior is influenced by genetics (nature) versus environment (nurture).

Continuous and discontinuous stages of development

Continuous development sees growth as gradual, while discontinuous development suggests distinct stages.

Cross-sectional research

A study comparing different age groups at the same time.

Longitudinal research

A study observing the same individuals over a long period.

Teratogens

Harmful agents (e.g., drugs, viruses) that can negatively affect prenatal development.

Maternal illness

Diseases or infections in a mother that may harm prenatal development.

Genetic mutations

Changes in DNA that can influence development and health.

Hormonal

Hormonal imbalances during pregnancy that affect fetal development.

Environmental factors

External conditions, like nutrition or toxins, that impact development.

Physical milestone

Significant achievements in physical development (e.g., walking).

Psychological milestone

Key achievements in mental or emotional development (e.g., language acquisition).

Reflexes

Automatic responses to stimuli in infants (e.g., grasp reflex).

Rooting reflex

A baby's tendency to turn toward a touch near their mouth to find food.

Visual cliff apparatus

A tool used to assess depth perception in infants.

Perceive depth

The ability to understand the distance between objects.

Imprint

A rapid attachment formed during a critical period, often seen in animals.

Adolescent growth spurt

A rapid increase in height and weight during puberty.

Puberty

The period when adolescents achieve sexual maturity.

Primary sex characteristics

Reproductive organs involved in reproduction (e.g., ovaries, testes).

Secondary sex characteristics

Traits that develop during puberty, not directly involved in reproduction (e.g., body hair).

Menarche

The first menstrual period in females.

Spermarche

The first ejaculation in males.

Adulthood

A life stage characterized by full physical and cognitive maturity, spanning early adulthood to late adulthood.

Sex

Biological differences between males and females.

Gender

Socially and culturally constructed roles, behaviors, and identities.

Piaget

A developmental psychologist who proposed stages of cognitive development.

Assimilation

Integrating new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to incorporate new information.

Sensorimotor stage

(Birth–2 years) Piaget's stage where infants develop object permanence.

Object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived

Preoperational stage

(2–7 years) A stage marked by mental symbols, pretend play, and struggles with conservation and egocentrism.

Mental symbols

Representing objects or ideas mentally without physical interaction.

Pretend play

Imaginative play where children create scenarios and act them out.

Cognitive tasks

Mental activities like problem-solving and logical reasoning.

Conservation

Understanding that quantities remain the same despite changes in shape.

Reversibility

The ability to recognize that numbers or objects can return to their original state.

Animism

Believing inanimate objects have feelings or thoughts.

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing the world from another's perspective.

Theory of mind

Understanding that others have thoughts, feelings, and intentions.

Concrete operational stage

(7-11 years) Piaget's stage where children develop logical reasoning.

Formal operational stage

(12 years and up) A stage involving abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Vygotsky

A developmental psychologist emphasizing the role of culture and social interaction.

Social learners

Vygotsky's idea that children learn through interaction with others.

Scaffolding

Temporary support provided to a learner until they achieve independence.

Zone of proximal development

The gap between what a learner can do independently and with help.

Crystallized intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; remains stable over time.

Fluid intelligence

The ability to think abstractly and solve novel problems; declines with age.

Cognitive disorders

Disorders affecting mental functions (e.g., memory, reasoning).

Dementia

A decline in cognitive functioning, often marked by memory loss and confusion.

Language

A system of communication using symbols and grammar.

Nonverbal manual gestures

Physical gestures used to communicate (e.g., pointing).

Ecological systems theory

A model outlining environmental influences on development.

Microsystem

Immediate environments (e.g., family, school).

Mesosystem

Interactions between microsystems.

Exosystem

Indirect influences (e.g., parents' workplaces).

Macrosystem

Broader cultural and societal influences.

Chronosystem

Changes over time affecting development.

Authoritarian

Strict rules and high expectations

Authoritative

Balanced approach with rules and support.

Permissive

Lenient, with few demands.

Secure

Healthy attachment formed through responsive caregiving.

Insecure

Attachment marked by anxiety, avoidance, or disorganization.

Temperament

An individual's characteristic emotional reactivity and behavior.

Separation anxiety

Distress experienced when separated from caregivers.

Developmental psychologists

Researchers studying how people change over their lifespan.

Play (parallel and pretend)

Parallel play is independent play near others; pretend play is imaginative.

Imaginary audience

Adolescents' belief that others are constantly watching them.

Personal fable

Adolescents' belief in their own uniqueness and invincibility.

Stage theory of psychosocial development

Erikson’s eight stages of resolving social conflicts

Trust and mistrust: Infancy.

Autonomy and shame and doubt: Toddlerhood.

Initiative and guilt: Early childhood.

Industry and inferiority: Middle childhood.

Identity and role confusion: Adolescence.

Intimacy and isolation: Early adulthood.

Generativity and stagnation: Middle adulthood.

Integrity and despair: Late adulthood.

Adverse childhood experiences (ACEs)

Traumatic events in childhood affecting long-term outcomes.

Achievement, diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium

Stages in identity formation.

Behavioral perspective

Focuses on observable behaviors and their external causes.

Conditioning

Learning through associations or consequences.

Behaviorists

Psychologists who study observable behavior.

Classical conditioning

Learning through associations between stimuli and responses.

Stimulus

An environmental event triggering a response.

Response

A reaction to a stimulus.

Acquisition

Initial learning of the stimulus-response association.

Associative learning

Learning by forming associations between events.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that triggers a natural response.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A natural reaction to the UCS.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that triggers a learned response.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to the CS.

Extinct

The diminishing of a learned response.

Spontaneously recovered

The reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction.

Stimulus discrimination and generalization

Responding differently to distinct stimuli or generalizing responses.

Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted response with a desired one.

Taste aversions

Strong associations formed after a single pairing of food and illness.

One-trial conditioning

Learning that occurs after a single pairing.

Biological preparedness

Innate readiness to learn certain associations.

Habituation

A decrease in response to repeated stimuli.

Operant conditioning

Learning where behaviors are shaped by consequences.

Reinforcement

Increasing the likelihood of a behavior.

Punishment

Decreasing the likelihood of a behavior.

The law of effect

Behaviors followed by rewards are likely to recur.

Positive/negative reinforcement

Adding/removing a stimulus to increase behavior.

Positive/negative punishment

Adding/removing a stimulus to decrease behavior.