Cog Psych Test 2

study better, attention, modal model, acquisition, retrieval

selective attention

focus on one input or one task while ignoring other stimuli or tasks

Facilitates desired input and inhibits unwanted

input

Attention directed to objects, not space

Flexibility of early and late attention

 Depends on where our limited-capacity is

exceeded

divided attention

allows us to process different

information sources and successfully carry out

multiple tasks at the same time

 Specialized cognitive resources

 Verbal and spatial tasks can sometimes be performed

simultaneously because each draws upon different

resources

 Working memory assistants

 For example

 Can respond to auditory commands and imagine a

cognitive map at the same time, but difficult to

simultaneously imagine a cognitive map and solve a

spatial problem

dichotic listening

Different messages to each ear

 Attended channel—Listen to this one

 Unattended channel—Ignore this one

Early-selection hypothesis

→ attended input → consciousness

/ Unattended input

Late-selection hypothesis

→ attended input → consciousness

→ unattended input /

shadowing

technique used to study attention processes. It involves participants repeating a message word-for-word as they hear it, usually through headphones, while other stimuli are present.

People don’t remember words from

unshadowed ear

Don’t notice if speech is played

backwards or if language changes

Cocktail party effect

the ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment, like a cocktail party, while filtering out other background noise.

unattended channel can be noticed

Participant’s own name

Words of high personal significance

This phenomenon demonstrates our capacity for selective attention, allowing us to concentrate on important stimuli while ignoring less relevant ones.

attentional bottleneck

describes the limitations of our attentional capacity. It suggests that there is a point at which the amount of information we can process becomes constrained, much like a bottleneck restricts the flow of liquid

early selection models

the attended input is privileged and unattended input gets little to no analysis

People sometimes report nothing from the

unattended ear

These models, like Broadbent's Filter Model, propose that the bottleneck occurs early in the processing stream. Here, information is filtered based on basic physical characteristics (e.g., pitch, loudness) before any semantic processing occurs

late selection models

when selection takes place after analysis

Cocktail party effect

these models suggest that all information is processed to a semantic level, and the bottleneck occurs later, where only the most relevant information reaches conscious awareness

working memory

is temporary memory

storage in which information is held while it

is currently being worked on.

Limited capacity/resource

Bottleneck occurs wherever we run out of

mental capacity

treisman’s attenuation model

theory of selective attention suggesting that instead of completely filtering out unattended information, our cognitive system attenuates (weakens) it

Attenuation: Unattended messages are not entirely blocked but are processed at a lower strength. This means that while the primary focus is on the attended message, some aspects of the unattended message can still be processed.

Thresholds: Certain stimuli, like our name or other significant information, have a lower threshold for recognition. Even when attenuated, these stimuli can capture our attention because they are more easily recognized.

Hierarchical Processing: Information is processed hierarchically, starting with basic physical characteristics (e.g., pitch, loudness) and moving to more complex semantic processing. Attenuated information can still reach higher levels of processing if it is significant enough.

Working memory

Central executive

 Two Assistants

 Articulatory rehearsal loop

 Visual-spatial sketchpad

 Central executive is the attentional

controller/scheduler

Remember, capacity is limited

individual differences in WM capacity predict many cognitive abilities

- Language comprehension

- Multi-tasking ability

- Efficiency of transfer into LTM

- Correlated with IQ

Operation span (OSPAN)

A measure of working memory capacity

 Decide whether equation is true or false

 Then remember word

 Number of words remembered is the

operation span (OSPAN)

High spanners

Have more mental resources

Better control their attention

Selection depends on mental resources

Complex stimuli involve more effort, resulting

in early selection.

Easy stimuli involve less effort, resulting in

late selection

stimulus priming

when a stimulus primes your detectors and it takes no effort on the individuals part

does not involve attention/capacity/resources

expectation priming

when the individual intentionally primes their detectors and it takes resources on the individuals part

does involve attention/capacity/resources

selective priming

when you prepare yourself for a stimulus and prime the detectors

Priming as a type of selective attention

Attended channel has lower evidence-

threshold (leading to easier recognition)

Your name is experienced frequently/recently

and is primed even when unattended (cocktail

party phenomenon)

two types of attention priming (according to Posner & Snyder (1975)

Stimulus-based priming: does not involve

attention/capacity/resources

Expectation-based priming: does involve

attention/capacity/resources

Low-validity condition

Unreliable Information: When the information is inconsistent or inaccurate, it is considered to have low validity.

Poorer Memory Performance: Under low validity conditions, people may struggle to remember information accurately because they cannot rely on the information they are processing.

Lower Confidence in Recall: Low validity conditions can lead to lower confidence in the accuracy of one's memories.

Many misled trials

Facilitation only

Primed condition faster than neutral

Misled same as neutral

High-validity condition

Expectation augments repetition priming

 Primed condition much faster than neutral

Misled slower than neutral condition

 Expectation uses up limited capacity

 Wrong expectation interferes/slows with correct decision

Task-general cognitive resources

Response selector-- required for selecting and

initiating responses, both physical and mental

 Deciding what key to press

 Deciding how to avoid car that just pulled into your

lane

Central executive--required to set goals and priorities,

choose strategies, and direct the function of other

cognitive processes

hit

true positive

is there + says it is there

top left

miss

false negative

is there but says it isn’t there

bottom left

correct rejection

true negative

isn’t there + says it isn’t there

bottom right

false positive

false alarm

isn’t there but says it is there

top right

discriminability (d’)

the distance between the two distributions in

terms of SD

(how similar are the distribution/ how much do they overlap)

z scores (how far are they apart in terms of standard deviations)

C: decision threshold / criteria

More evidence is “conservative”, less

evidence is “liberal”

Type I error

false positive

Incorrectly say there is something there when there is not

(you learn false alarms first like fire drills)

Type II error

false negative

incorrectly say there is nothing there when there is

two conceptualizations of memory

Storehouse

• How much is remembered?

• But memory is reconstructive

Alternative conceptualization

• Correspondence

What is remembered?

Accuracy of what we report (metacognition)

schema

knowledge that describes what is typical or frequent in a given situation

critical intrusions

People think something is there when it isn’t because of expectations

Critical items intrude on memory

Intrusions due to schematic knowledge

Top-down contribution

misinformation effect

Event + Misleading information + Time →

Misleading information becomes part of the

remembered event.

autobiographical memory

memory of episodes and events in a

person’s own life

biased to emphasize consistency and

positive traits

mix of genuine recall and schema-based

reconstruction

self reference effect

better memory for information relevant to

oneself

self schema

a set of beliefs and memories about oneself

People recall past attitudes in a fashion that

emphasizes consistency (making past look

more like the present

Causes of better memory for emotional events

increased activity in the amygdala and hippocampus (better consolidation)

More rehearsal

traumatic memories

Physiological arousal and stress at the time of

event increase consolidation.

• These memories can also be lost.

o Causes include head injuries, sleep deprivation, drugs or alcohol,

and—controversially—“repression.”

o Stress during retrieval can also interfere.

Autobiographical Memory

repression

Some authors think that traumatic memories can be “lost”

and then “recovered.”

o Lost memories may be due to ordinary retrieval failure.

• Some of the memories reported as “recovered” may be

actually be false memories.

o Leading questions and expectations in therapy can

promote this process.

Autobiographical Memory

Certain principles of autobiographical memory reflect more general memory principles

All memories depend on connections

o Formation of schemata from individual memory episodes

o Potential for intrusion errors and susceptibility to

misinformation

• Importance of rehearsal

Other principles of autobiographical memory may be distinct.

• The role of emotion in shaping autobiographical memory

may be less applicable to other kinds of memory.

Perception-inferences guided by

knowledge

2. Attention-anticipate inputs, guided by

knowledge

3. Memory-connect things and add things

based on knowledge

Schemata and scripts

4.What is knowledge?

Modal model

 3 structures

 4 characteristics

 Working memory

 Accurate memory

 Encoding specificity and cue overload

 Implicit memory

 Memory is reconstructive

encoding specificity

remembering something within a specific context

What matters for successful remembering is the overlap between encoding and retrieval

need a match between encoding and retrieval

match = degree of overlap

match affected by cue overload (distinctivnesss)

context dependence

Remembering (at retrieval) is dependent on the state one was in during encoding.

New material is most likely to be recalled when the person is in the same mental, emotional, or biological state as when the material was learned.

retrieval paths

connections between new material and existing memory

help us remember new material

types of encoding overlap

physical context: place

verbal context: wording

state dependent: biological

mood dependent: feelings

what determines retrieval success?

degree of encoding retrieval overlap (match strength)

degree of cue overlap (distinctiveness)

ways to test explicit memory (conscious)

direct memory testing:

recall: generate

recognition: differentiate

accompanied by the conviction that one is remembering a specific prior pisode

ways to test implicit memory (unconscious)

indirect memory testing:

priming task

recall

Generate item with or without an explicit cue

requires search through memory

recognition

decide if item is the right one

if source memory is available recognition responses are similar to recall

in other cases recognition responses are based on a feeling of familiarity

illusion of truth

an effect of implicit memory in which claims that are familiar end up seeming more plausible

processing fluency

an improvement in the speed or ease of processing

can create an illusion of familiarity from which a participant might infer prior exposure a statement of truth

just as seeing a stimulus raises the activation level of the relevant detectors, perceiving a word or thinking about its meaning leads to a similar preactivation or fluency in the relevant cognitive mechanisms.

encoding

create memory traces corresponding to an event

storage

maintenance of memory traces stored during encoding

retrieval

accessing memory traces

limited cognitive capacity

cannot encode everything

encode the wrong information

fill in information that we did not encode using stereotypes, expectations, prior knowledge

memory weakens over time

memory can distort over time from suggestion, inference, media report, co witness

modal model

A perspective in cognitive psychology in which complex mental events involve a number of discrete components

These components receive input from, and send input to, one another.

sensory memory (iconic or echoic)

short term memory

long term memory

sensory memory

input held in raw sensory form

iconic: visual

echoic: auditory

Short term memory

holds the information currently in use

long term memory

all the information one can remember

working memory

a dynamic form of short term memory

involving storage (structure) and processing information

adaptive and does more than simply store information

more recent term for stm emphasizaing its function

primacy effect

better memory for first few items

based in long term memory

first few items receive the most memory rehearsal and are transferred from WM to LTM

better encoding in ltm

recency effect

Better memory for the last few items

Last few items are not displaced by future items

Retrieved from working memory

chunking

The ability to condense information

Requires effort

Reduces load

Effort and attentional resources are required to repackage the input

Does not increase the size of working memory itself

7 ± 2

depth of processing

promotes recall by facilitating later retrieval

Consider learning as a way to establish a path (a cue) to the information.

Connections between items to be remembered facilitates retrieval.

mnemonics

strategies used to improve memory by providing an organizational framework.

The downside is not finding a richer understanding of the material by relating it to things already known.

types of mnemonic systems

peg word systems

: items are “hung” on a system of already well known “pegs”

“One is a bun, two is a shoe . . .”

associate numbers with a word and create vivid mental image to remember it

Capitalize on cue-dependence

First-letter mnemonics

Roy G Biv

King Phillip Crossed Over France Going South

three phases of memory processes

encoding

storage

retrieval

Simplistic for two reasons

Effective learning depends on how the information will be later retrieved (ch 7)

New learning not independent of learned (existing) knowledge (ch 8)

forgetting by retrieval failure

results from the reselection (resampling) of previously selected items

“Never” forget anything, just can’t find it

Successful retrieval involves selection of previously unselected item

Prob. select = (strength of item / total strength of all items)

Assume successful retrieval increases the retrieved item’s strength

Memories consolidate for a period of time after they are formed.

During consolidation, memories are especially vulnerable to disruption.

Supporting evidence: temporal gradient of retrograde amnesia.

Impairs previously formed memories, with memories formed just prior to brain injury more impaired than memories that were formed longer ago

memory characteristics

Size

Duration

Format

Forgetting

ltm size

unknown

theoretically infinite

can always learn more

the more you know might make it easier to learn more because there is more scaffolding

ltm duration

theoretically permanent

ltm format

meaning-based

extract what is important (gist) and discard the (verbatim) details

ltm forgetting

Decay

Interference--at retrieval

Proactive

Retroactive

Consolidation--interference during storage

Retrieval failure

not lost from memory but lost in me

how things ate forgotten in ltm

Distinguish from something not getting encoded at all, in which case it cannot be forgotten

Decay-no mechanisms specified

Retrieval interference – the links have been changed and you misremember or recognize that confidence is low

Proactive-old items interfere with new (where did I park today?)

Retroactive-new items interfere with retrieval of previous (old) items (Learn a new programming language and forget how to do things in the old language)

controlled tasks

are novel and require flexibility in one’s approach.

These tasks require attention and cannot be carried out if the person is busy with another task.

automatic tasks

are well practiced and do not require flexibility.

These tasks require little or no attention and can be carried out even if the person is also busy with another task

WM brain acticity in controlled and automatic

The processing of new information makes heavy use of working memory.

The development of automaticity involves a reduction in brain activity.

Dramatic changes in brain activity can be seen on fMRI scans as automaticity develops.

why does practice improve performance

Complex tasks are broken into parts

With practice, some parts can go from being controlled (requiring capacity) to being automatic (requiring no capacity)

tasks by themselves create problems in divided attention.

With practice, components of the task change from being a controlled process to being an automatic one.

As a task becomes more practiced, it requires fewer cognitive resources.

As the ability becomes more automatic, executive control and the response selector are needed less and less.

attentional tunneling

Inattentional blindness

Over focus on one thing for longer than is optimal and therefore taking attention away from something else

Limited attentional resources

Bottlenecks

Resource competition

Multitasking still possible though?

Only with big decrements to performance

working memory and mental activities

Virtually all mental activities require working memory (WM)

But some mental activities demand more WM resources than others

Central executive

Works to keep the desired goal in mind

Serves to inhibit automatic responses

episodic context binding

Unable to pick up on a stimulus a second time.

We try to impose episodic context on each item. Because the stimuli are so close to each other they get clumped into the same episodic context.

stm characteristics

duration: less than 1 second

size: 10+ items

format: raw

forgetting: interference

wm characteristics

duration: ~10 seconds

size: 7 ± 2

format: audio

forgetting: interference

ltm characterisitics

duration: forever

size: unknown

format: semantic

forgetting: pro/retro interference, decay, retrieval failure, consolodation