A-P Lab Final Exam Study Guide

Practice vocabulary flashcards covering the levels of organization, cell biology, histology, integumentary system, skeletal system, and nervous system based on lab study notes.

Chemical level

The smallest building blocks of organization, consisting of atoms and molecules.

Cellular level

The level of organization where molecules combine to form cells, the smallest living unit.

Tissue level

Groups of similar cells working together, such as epithelial tissue.

Organ level

Two or more tissue types working together, such as the stomach.

Organ system level

Organs working together for a common purpose, such as the digestive system.

Organism level

The highest level of organization where all organ systems work together, such as a living person.

Cytosol

The fluid medium portion of the cytoplasm that houses organelles and is the site of many metabolic reactions.

Plasma Membrane

The cell membrane that controls movement in and out, protects the cell, and is selectively permeable.

Selectively Permeable

A property of the cell membrane that allows substances to cross based on size, polarity, and chemical properties.

Hypotonic Solution

A solution with less solute outside the cell than inside, causing water to move into the cell.

Hemolysis

The process where red blood cells swell and burst, which can occur in a hypotonic solution.

Collagen Fibers

The most abundant fiber that provides strength and toughness, resists stretching, and is found in bone, cartilage, tendons, and dermis.

Elastic Fibers

Fibers containing elastin that allow tissues to stretch and recoil back to their original shape; found in skin and blood vessels.

Reticular Fibers

Thin branching fibers that provide a supportive framework in soft organs like lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow.

Eyepiece (ocular lens)

The lens of a microscope that you look through, which usually magnifies the image by $10x$.

Objective Lenses

Lenses of different magnifications ($4x$, $10x$, $40x$, and $100x$) that magnify the specimen on a microscope.

Condenser

A microscope part that focuses light onto the specimen for clearer viewing.

Diaphragm

A part that regulates the amount of light passing through the specimen to improve contrast.

Coarse Adjustment

A knob that moves the microscope stage up or down quickly for rough focusing.

Rheostat

A control that adjusts the brightness or intensity of the light in a microscope.

Epidermis

The outermost, avascular layer of the skin made of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Dermis

The skin layer located beneath the epidermis containing blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, and glands; divided into papillary and reticular layers.

Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)

A layer containing adipose and connective tissue that provides insulation, energy storage, and shock absorption; not considered part of the skin.

Keratinocytes

The most abundant epidermal cells which produce keratin to waterproof and protect the skin.

Melanocytes

Cells in the epidermis that produce melanin to protect against ultraviolet (UV) radiation.

Langerhans Cells

Immune cells located in the epidermis that detect bacteria and pathogens.

Merkel Cells

Sensory receptors in the epidermis that detect light touch.

Eccrine (Merocrine) Glands

Glands found all over the body responsible for thermoregulation by producing watery sweat.

Apocrine Glands

Glands found in the armpit and pubic region that become active during puberty and produce body odor after bacterial breakdown.

Sebaceous Glands

A type of holocrine gland that produces sebum (oil) to lubricate skin and hair and prevent drying.

Hair bulb (Matrix)

The base of the hair root where hair cells actively divide and grow.

Nail Matrix

The growth zone at the base of the nail containing living cells that divide to produce the nail plate.

Osteon (Haversian System)

The structural and functional unit of compact bone, consisting of concentric lamellae around a central canal.

Concentric lamellae

Rings of bone matrix that make up the osteon.

Lacuna

Small spaces within the bone matrix that contain osteocytes.

Canaliculi

Tiny channels that connect lacunae to each other and to the central canal.

Perforating (Volkmann's) canal

Perpendicular canals that connect central canals to blood vessels in the periosteum and marrow.

Cubital

A regional term referring to the elbow, specifically the posterior aspect.

Antecubital

A regional term referring to the front or inner aspect of the elbow.

Endochondral Ossification

A type of bone formation where bone develops from hyaline cartilage, forming most bones.

Intramembranous Ossification

A type of bone formation where bone develops directly from connective tissue, forming flat bones of the skull and clavicle.

Foramen Magnum

A large opening in the occipital bone of the skull that allows the spinal cord and brainstem to pass.

Synovial joints (Diarthrosis)

Freely movable joints enclosed in a joint capsule and lubricated by synovial fluid, such as the shoulder, knee, and hip.

Osteoporosis

A disorder characterized by loss of bone density, common after menopause because lower estrogen increases bone breakdown.

Atlas (C1)

The first cervical vertebra that has no body, supports the skull, and allows for the "yes" (nodding) movement.

Axis (C2)

The second cervical vertebra that features the dens (odontoid process) and allows for rotation or the "no" movement.

True Ribs

Ribs $1-7$ which have direct attachment to the sternum via costal cartilage.

Frontal Lobe

The part of the cerebrum responsible for personality, decision making, planning, and higher cognitive functions.

Thalamus

A brain structure located deep within the brain that serves as a major relay station for sensory information.

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons and carry them toward the cell body.

Axon

A long, single fiber-like extension of a neuron that carries nerve impulses away from the cell body.

Central Sulcus

A deep groove in the cerebral cortex that separates the precentral gyrus from the postcentral gyrus.

Precentral Gyrus

The primary motor cortex located in front of the central sulcus that controls voluntary body movements.

Postcentral Gyrus

The primary somatosensory cortex located behind the central sulcus that processes touch, pain, and temperature.

PET Scan

Positron Emission Tomography; an imaging technique that shows metabolically active areas in the brain using a tracer.

Gray Matter

The portion of the spinal cord that forms horns and contains cell bodies and synapses for processing information.

White Matter

The portion of the spinal cord that forms columns and contains myelinated axons for communication pathways.