3. attitudes, norm and behaviour

Attitude

A relatively enduring organisation of beliefs, feelings, and behavioural tendencies towards socially significant objects, groups, events or symbols (Hogg & Vaughan 2005, p. 150).

Attitude (alternative definition)

A psychological tendency that is expressed by evaluating a particular entity with some degree of favor or disfavor (Eagly & Chaiken, 1993, p. 1).

ABCs of Attitudes

A framework consisting of Affect, Behaviour, and Cognition that describes how attitudes are formed and expressed.

Affect

Evaluations based on positive and negative emotions associated with a target/issue/object.

Behaviour

A behavioral tendency or intention to act in a certain manner towards the attitude object.

Cognition

Evaluations based on beliefs & facts about the attitude object.

Attitude Strength

The durability, impact, and extremity of an attitude.

Durability

How well an attitude persists over time.

Impact

The chance that an attitude will impact behavior.

Extremity

The strength of an attitude, whether strong or weak.

Attitude Importance

How personally relevant an attitude is.

Attitude Accessibility

How easily or quickly an attitude comes to mind.

Attitudinal Ambivalence

Having conflicting feelings about an attitude.

Attitudinal Coherence

The alignment between cognitive and behavioural concepts related to an attitude.

Attitude Development

Attitudes can develop through genetics, conditioning (classical, instrumental), exposure, and social (observational) learning.

Attitude Change

Attitudes can be very stable and resistant to change, but persuasion attempts aim to change them.

Persuasion

Attempts to change someone's attitudes.

Compliance & Conformity

Social psychological processes that can influence attitude change.

Moral Values

Central to how we define ourselves; moral convictions are distinct from strong non-moral attitudes.

Clashing Moral Convictions

Can lead to emotional responses, intolerance, and acceptance of violence.

Attitudes vs Actions

Attitudes do not necessarily predict behavior; self-reported attitudes may not align with actual behavior.

Lapiere Study (1934)

Demonstrated that attitudes toward cheating bear little relation to actual likelihood of cheating.

Stated Value vs. Observed Practice

The discrepancy between what people say they believe and how they actually behave.

Theory of Planned Behavior

A theory that identifies three important predictors of our behavioral intentions: attitudes towards a particular issue, subjective norms, and perceived behavior control.

Attitudes

Evaluations of a particular issue that can influence behavior.

Subjective Norms

Perceptions of how our behavior might be perceived by others.

Perceived Behavior Control

The perception that a behavior is actually under our control.

Cognitive Consistency

The desire to maintain balance among beliefs, feelings, and behaviors.

Balance Theory

A theory by Heider stating that people try to maintain balance among their beliefs, feelings, and behaviors.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

A theory by Festinger that describes the discomfort experienced when holding conflicting attitudes or when attitudes and behavior are inconsistent.

Cognitive Dissonance

An unpleasant internal state that results when individuals notice inconsistency between two or more attitudes or between attitudes and behavior.

Festinger and Carlsmith Experiment (1959)

An experiment where students who were paid $1 to lie about a boring task reported enjoying it more than those paid $20, highlighting cognitive dissonance.

Meat Paradox

The conflict between the moral attitude of not wanting to harm animals and the behavior of consuming products that harm animals.

Bastian et al (2012)

A study where participants assigned to eat beef rated cows as less sentient than those assigned to eat nuts, demonstrating cognitive dissonance.

Petty and Cacioppo (1986)

Research indicating that discomfort can be resolved by changing beliefs rather than behavior.

Inconsistency

A situation where behavior does not align with one's attitudes, often leading to discomfort.

Behavioral Influence Minimization

The reduction of other influences on behavior to better understand the relationship between attitudes and behavior.

Change Attitude Towards Person

One option to restore balance when someone we respect holds an opposing opinion.

Change Attitude Towards Issue

Another option to restore balance when faced with conflicting opinions from someone we respect.

Hypocrisy

The state of holding attitudes that contradict one's behavior.

Internal Conflict

The mental struggle resulting from holding conflicting attitudes within oneself.

Dissonance

A tool for behaviour change by inducing discomfort when actions are inconsistent with attitudes.

Elaboration-Likelihood Model

A theory that describes two routes to persuasion: central and peripheral.

Central Route

Involves carefully considering the message content and ideas, requiring effort and attention.

Peripheral Route

Involves mental shortcuts and superficial cues, relying on the source rather than the message.

Behaviour Change

The alteration of an individual's actions based on persuasive messages.

Credibility

The quality of being trusted and believed in, influenced by competence and trustworthiness.

Nudging

A method of influencing behaviour in a predictable way without forbidding options or changing economic incentives.

Choice Architecture

The physical, social, and psychological contexts that influence our choices.

Resistance Strategies

Techniques individuals use to defend against persuasive messages, such as forewarning and counter-arguing.

Need for Cognition

A personality trait that reflects the enjoyment of complex tasks and mental effort.

Self-Regulation

The ability to control one's thoughts and actions, often used to argue against persuasive messages.

Behavioural Economics

A scientific discipline that applies psychological insights to explain economic decision-making.

Social Psychology

The scientific study of how individuals' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are influenced by others.

Behavioural Insights

Research across multiple disciplines to understand human behaviour and decision-making.

Group Norms

Shared guidelines or rules that influence the behaviour of individuals within a group.

Thaler and Sunstein's Definition of Nudge

Any aspect of choice architecture that alters behaviour in a predictable way without forbidding options.

Strong Arguments

Arguments that are well-supported by facts, particularly important for central routes of persuasion.

Positive Framing

Presenting information in a way that highlights the benefits of a product or action.

Moderate Appeals

Persuasive messages that avoid extreme positions, such as 'be alert, not alarmed.'

Selective Avoidance

The tendency to pay attention only to information that aligns with one's existing beliefs.

Counter-Arguing

Preparing to defend one's current position against persuasive messages.

Subjective Norm

A person's perception of what others believe they should do.

Norms

Social uniformities which arise from processes of mutual influence between group members.

Descriptive Norms

Specify what most people do in a particular situation, indicating what is typical and normal.

Injunctive Norms

Specify what most people approve of; the rules or beliefs as to what constitutes moral and 'right' behaviour.

Identities

People's sense of themselves, who they are as group members.

Paying Taxes Study

Research by Martin (2012) examining the role of identity in tax compliance.

Saving Energy Study

Research by Nolan et al. (2009) that found social norms were most effective in encouraging energy conservation.

Fewer Antibiotics Study

Research by Hallsworth et al. (2016) that involved sending letters to GPs about their prescribing rates.

Drinking & Driving Study

Research by Perkins et al. (2010) that used social norms marketing to change perceptions about drinking and driving.

Bullying in Schools Study

Research by Perkins et al. (2011) that used peer-norm interventions to address misperceptions of bullying norms.

Social Norm Changes

The potentials and limits of social norm changes as a means to solve large-scale problems are not yet fully understood.

Critical Issues in Norms

What are the underlying mechanisms that explain when and how social norms lead to behaviour change?

Misperception of Norms

The incorrect belief about what the norms are within a group, which can lead to misbehaviour.

Obligation and Duty

The concept of 'oughtness' in norms, indicating a sense of moral responsibility.

Social Values

Norms express social values about what is considered 'good' within a group.

Peer-Norm Intervention

An approach that uses actual norm information to address misperceptions of norms.

Survey of Bullying

A baseline survey completed by students at 5 USA middle schools to assess bullying behaviours.

Poster Campaign

A method used in the bullying study to communicate norms and reduce bullying behaviour.

Behavioural Changes

Changes in reported behaviour among individuals as a result of norm interventions.

Social Self

People can define the self as a group member ('weʼ and 'usʼ) as well as an individual ('Iʼ and 'meʼ).

Social Influence

Others categorized as like self or similar to self can be a source of social influence (conformity).

Kurt Lewin's Quote

It is usually easier to change individuals formed into a group than to change any one of them separately.

Perceived Norms

The perceived norms of a specific and behaviourally relevant reference group may be important in explaining the intention-behaviour relationship.

Reference Group Norms

How many of your friends and peers would engage in household recycling? (1: none to 7: all).

Peer Perception

Most of my friends and peers think that me engaging in household recycling during the next fortnight would be… (1: undesirable to 7: desirable).

Identification with Reference Group

How much do you identify with your group of friends and peers? (1: not very much to 7: very much).

Behavioural Intention

I intend to engage in household recycling during the next fortnight (1: extremely unlikely to 7: extremely likely).

Key Elements of Attitudes

Enduring: Attitudes tend to be stable and resistant to change.

Three Components of Attitudes

Affective: Emotions or feelings associated; Behavioural: Tendency or intention to act; Cognitive: Beliefs or thoughts.

Dimensions of Attitudes

Strength, durability, impact, extremity, importance, accessibility, ambivalence, coherence.

Development of Attitudes

Genetics, conditioning, exposure, and social observation.

Stability of Attitudes

Attitudes can be stubborn, especially morally charged ('moral convictions').

Change of Attitudes

Change is possible, but moral attitudes are especially resistant and can drive conflict.

Attitudes and Behaviour Link

Research shows the link between attitudes and behaviour is not as strong as assumed.

LaPierre's 1930s Classic Study

Traveled with a Chinese couple across US restaurants/hotels during a period of anti-Asian prejudice.

LaPierre Study Results

Out of 251 establishments, they were refused service only once; later, most claimed they would not serve Chinese people.

Discrepancy between reported attitudes and actual behaviours

The difference observed between what people say they believe and how they actually act.

Weak correlation between attitudes and actual behaviours

A low relationship between what individuals express as their beliefs and their real-life actions, exemplified by churchgoing, cheating, and racial prejudice.