AP Psych q.2 final

Behavioral perspective

An approach that focuses on observable behavior and the ways it is learned through conditioning.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which a neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response after being paired with a stimulus that naturally produces that response.

Association

A mental connection formed between stimuli, behaviors, or ideas.

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together, such as two stimuli or a response and its consequence.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without prior learning.

Unconditioned response (UR)

An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Extinction

The diminishing and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a pause.

Stimulus discrimination

The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other similar stimuli.

Stimulus generalization

The tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit the conditioned response.

Higher-order conditioning

A procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Counterconditioning

A therapy technique that replaces an unwanted conditioned response with a more desirable response.

Taste aversion

A strong dislike or avoidance of a food that has been associated with nausea or illness.

One-trial conditioning

Learning that occurs after a single pairing of a stimulus and response.

Biological preparedness

The tendency of animals to learn certain associations more easily due to evolutionary adaptations.

One-trial learning

Learning that happens after only one exposure to a stimulus or event.

Habituation

Decreased responsiveness to a repeated, unchanging stimulus.

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened by reinforcement or weakened by punishment.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior recurring.

Law of Effect

The principle that behaviors followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to recur, while those followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely.

Positive reinforcement

Adding a desirable stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative reinforcement

Removing an aversive stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive punishment

Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Negative punishment

Removing a desirable stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior.

Primary reinforcers

Stimuli that are naturally reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs.

Secondary reinforcers

Stimuli that gain their reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Reinforcement discrimination

Learning that a behavior is reinforced in one context but not in another.

Reinforcement generalization

The tendency for a reinforced behavior to occur in situations similar to the one in which it was reinforced.

Shaping

A procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer approximations of a desired response.

Instinctive drift

The tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns.

Superstitious behavior

Behavior that is mistakenly reinforced by a coincidental relationship with a consequence.

Learned helplessness

A condition in which repeated exposure to uncontrollable events leads to a sense of powerlessness and passive behavior.

Reinforcement schedules

Patterns that define how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcing a response only part of the time.

Fixed interval

A schedule in which a response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed.

Variable interval

A schedule in which a response is reinforced at unpredictable time intervals.

Fixed ratio

A schedule in which a response is reinforced only after a specified number of responses.

Variable ratio

A schedule in which a response is reinforced after an unpredictable number of responses.

Scalloped graph

A response pattern on a fixed-interval schedule showing pauses after reinforcement and then increasing response rates as the interval ends.

Fixed Interval

A schedule in which reinforcement is delivered for the first response after a set period of time.

Variable Interval

A schedule in which reinforcement is given for the first response after varying time intervals.

Fixed Ratio

A schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses.

Variable Ratio

A schedule in which reinforcement occurs after a changing, unpredictable number of responses.

Social learning theory

A theory that people learn by observing others and the consequences of their actions.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning that occurs by watching others being reinforced or punished.

Modeling

Learning by imitating the behavior of others.

Insight learning

A type of learning that involves a sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement but is not demonstrated until there is motivation to do so.

Cognitive maps

Mental representations of the layout of an environment.

Abnormal Psychology

The study of behaviors, thoughts, and emotions that are atypical, distressing, or dysfunctional.

Clinical Psychology

The branch of psychology focused on assessing, diagnosing, and treating mental disorders.

Psychology Student

An individual who studies psychological theories, research, and applications.

Syndrome

A cluster of symptoms that occur together and characterize a particular disorder.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR)

The official manual used by clinicians to classify and diagnose mental disorders.

International Classification of Mental Disorders (ICD)

A global diagnostic system used to classify diseases and health conditions, including mental disorders.

Deviation

Behavior that differs significantly from social or statistical norms.

Distress

Emotional suffering or discomfort experienced by an individual.

Dysfunction

Impairment in daily functioning across social, occupational, or other important areas.

Eclectic Approach

An approach to therapy that combines techniques from multiple theoretical perspectives.

Behavioral Perspective

An approach that emphasizes observable behavior and the environment's role in shaping it.

Psychodynamic Perspective

An approach that emphasizes unconscious processes and early childhood experiences.

Humanistic Perspective

An approach that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and free will.

Bipolar I Disorder

A mood disorder characterized by at least one full manic episode, often with depressive episodes.

Bipolar II Disorder

A mood disorder involving hypomanic episodes and major depressive episodes but no full manic episodes.

Neurodevelopmental Disorders

Disorders that begin in childhood and involve developmental deficits affecting personal, social, academic, or occupational functioning.

Attention-Definition/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity.

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

A neurodevelopmental disorder involving deficits in social communication and restricted, repetitive behaviors or interests.

Feeding and Eating Disorders

Disorders characterized by disturbances in eating behavior and related thoughts and emotions.

Anorexia Nervosa

An eating disorder marked by self-starvation, intense fear of weight gain, and a distorted body image.

Bulimia Nervosa

An eating disorder involving binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting or excessive exercise.

Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders

Severe psychological disorders characterized by distortions in thinking, perception, emotions, and behavior.

Delusions

False, firmly held beliefs that are resistant to evidence or logic.

Delusions of Persecution

False beliefs that one is being targeted, harmed, or plotted against.

Delusions of Grandeur

False beliefs that one has great power, importance, or special abilities.

Cognitive Perspective

An approach that focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem solving.

Evolutionary Perspective

An approach that examines behavior and mental processes in terms of their adaptive value across generations.

Sociocultural Perspective

An approach that examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.

Biological Perspective

An approach that examines how the brain, nervous system, hormones, and genetics influence behavior.

Biopsychosocial Model

A model that explains psychological disorders through the interaction of biological, psychological, and social factors.

Diathesis-Stress Model

A model suggesting that disorders result from a predisposition combined with environmental stress.

Stigma

A negative attitude or belief that leads to discrimination against people with mental illness.

Anxiety Disorders

Disorders characterized by excessive fear, anxiety, and related behavioral disturbances.

Specific Phobia

An intense, irrational fear of a particular object or situation.

Acrophobia

An intense fear of heights.

Arachnophobia

An intense fear of spiders.

Agoraphobia

Fear and avoidance of situations where escape might be difficult or help unavailable.

Panic Disorder

A disorder involving recurrent, unexpected panic attacks and worry about having more attacks.

Ataque de nervious

A culturally specific syndrome involving uncontrollable shouting, crying, and trembling in response to stress.

Social Anxiety Disorder

Intense fear of social situations in which one may be scrutinized by others.

Taijin Kyofusho

A Japanese culture-bound syndrome involving fear of offending or embarrassing others.

Hallucinations

Sensory perceptions that occur without an external stimulus.

Disorganized Thinking

Thinking that is fragmented, illogical, or difficult to follow.

Disorganized Speech

Speech that is incoherent, tangential, or characterized by loose associations.

Word Salad

Speech in which words are jumbled and lack logical connection.

Disorganized Motor Behavior

Behavior that is bizarre, unpredictable, or lacking in purpose.