attachment - full

definition of infancy

the period of a child’s life before speech begins, usually in the first 0-2 years.

key interactions between caregivers snd infants

non-verbal communication

attachment definition

a close emotional relationship between two persons characterised by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity

4 key behaviours or attachment

• Seeking proximity to primary caregiver

• Both caregiver & infant experience distress on separation

• Both experience pleasure on being reunited

• Using the caregiver as a safe base for exploration

reciprocity

type of interaction.

This is responding to an action given by someone with another action; the actions of one partner cause a response from the other partner.
Research has shown that infants coordinate their actions with their caregivers, similar to a conversation. From birth infants move in a rhythm when interacting with an adult almost as if they were taking turns, as people do in a conversation (one person speaks, then the other person speaks, etc.)

interactional synchrony

type of interaction.

When the mother and infant interact they tend to mirror what the other is doing with their facial and body movements. It is described as synchrony when two (or more) things move in the same pattern. They will imitate both behaviours and emotions intentionally, it is argued that this is important for mother-infant attachment.

Here the response is an imitation whereas with reciprocity the response to the partner can be different to the original action.

interactional synchrony case study

Meltzoff and Moore (1977)

A: conducted the first in depth study on interactional synchrony.

P: the study used a controlled observation. They chose four different stimuli (three different faces plus a hand gesture where the fingers moved in a sequence). The study was conducted using an adult model who displayed one of the three facial expressions or the hand movement. Following the display, the child's expression was filmed.

The video of the baby was then judged by independent observers who had no knowledge of what the infant had just seen (to control for expectancy effects).

The observer watched the videotapes of the infant's behaviour in real time, slow motion and frame by frame if necessary.

Each observer was asked to note all instances of infant tongue protrusions and head movements in different categories. Inter-observer reliability (consistency between 2 observers) was then calculated. All scores were greater than 0.92 which means that there was high agreement between the observers.

F: Infants as young as 2 or 3 weeks old imitated specific facial and hand gestures.

C: There was an association between the infant behaviour and that if the adult model, supporting the idea of interactional synchrony.

interactional synchrony strengths

• A strength of the research into interactions between caregiver and infant is that most studies use controlled observations. Procedures are controlled with both the mother and the infant being filmed, often from multiple angles. This ensures that the fine details of behaviour can be recorded and analysed meaning that the research has high internal validity.

• However, as the behaviour is observed in a controlled environment the studies may not reflect real world infant behaviour, and therefore the research may lack ecological validity and not generalise to real life interactions

• A strength of doing research into reciprocity and interactional synchrony is that it has important implications. It has been found that they are important in the development of quality of attachment. Furthermore, these interactions have been found to be important in the of development empathy, moral reasoning and language. Therefore, it is essential psychologists study these interactions because they have important real life implications for parenting; parents need to be aware of how important it is for then to interact with their baby.

• The theory of interactional synchrony argues that infants imitate their caregiver's behaviour on purpose. There is evidence to support that the infant's imitation is intentional: Murray and Treverthen (1985) carried out a study on two month old infants. In the first condition the babies interacted via a video monitor with their mother. In the second condition the video monitor played a tape of the mother so that the image on the screen was not responding to the infant's facial and bodily gestures. In this condition the infants showed severe distress when they tried to attract their mother's interest but she did not respond. Eventually, gaining no response from their mother, the babies became disinterested and turned away. This shows that the infant is actively trying to get a response and is an active and intentional partner in the mother-infant interaction, as the theory suggests.

interactional synchrony study weaknesses

• Supporting evidence for the importance of Interactional synchrony in attachment: Isabella (1989) observed 30 mothers and infants together and assessed their degree of synchrony and the quality of attachment. It was found that high levels of synchrony were associated with better quality attachment. This suggests a relationship between closeness of synchrony and strength of attachment. This supports the claim interactions are important for later attachment.

• However, as this research is correlational cause and effect cannot be inferred. The theory suggests that high levels of interactional synchrony cause high quality attachments, but it could be that having a good quality attachment increases levels of synchrony. Alternatively, other factors may be involved in the quality of attachments e.g. the innate personality of the infant.

Study into stages of attachment A + P +C

A: Schaffer and Emerson (1964) conducted a study on the development of attachments.

P: Sixty infants from mainly working class homes in Glasgow were studied. At the start of the investigation the infants ranged from five to twenty-three weeks of age. They were studied until the age of one year. The mothers were visited every four weeks. At each visit each mother reported on their infant’s response to separation in seven everyday situations (such as being left alone in a room, or with other people). The mother was also asked to describe the intensity of any protest (for instance a full-blooded cry, or a whimper) which was then rated on a four-point scale. Finally, the mother was asked to say to whom the protest was directed. The children’s response to the interviewer at each visit was also measured to assess their levels of stranger anxiety. They used the findings from this study to construct a description of how attachment develops.

C: By the age of one year, the majority of infants had formed multiple attachments.

These usually developed after the infant had formed their specific attachment to

the primary attachment figure.

Stages of attachment - stage 1: indiscriminate attachment

From birth to around two months infants produce similar responses to all objects, be they inanimate or animate. Towards the end of this period, infants are beginning to show a greater preference for social stimuli, such as a smiling face, and to be more content when they are with people. During this period of time reciprocity and interactional synchrony play a role in establishing the infant’s relationships with others.

Stages of attachment - stage 2: the beginnings of attachment

Around the age of four months infants become more social. They prefer human company to inanimate objects and can distinguish between familiar and unfamiliar people. However, they are still relatively easily comforted by anyone, and do not show stranger anxiety. The most distinctive feature of this phase is their general sociability (enjoyment of being with people).

Stages of attachment - stage 3:

By seven months old most infants begin to show a distinctly different sort of protest when one particular person puts them down (separation anxiety). Equally, they show joy at reunion with that person and are most comforted by this person. They are said to have formed a specific attachment to one person, their primary attachment figure. Around the same time, the infant also begin to display stranger anxiety, another sign of the specific attachment being formed.

Schaffer and Emerson found that primary attachments were not always formed with the person who spent the most time with the child. They observed that intensely attached infants had mothers who responded quickly and sensitively to their “signals” and who offered their child the most interaction. Infants who were poorly attached had mothers who failed to interact. Thus, they concluded that it is quality of the relationship, not quantity that mattered most in formation of attachment.

In 65% of the children the first specific attachment was to the mother, and in a further 30% the mother was first joint object of attachment. Fathers were rarely the first sole object of attachment (3%), but 27% of them were the joint first object.

Stages of attachment - stage 4: multiple attachments

Very soon after the main attachment is formed, the infant also develops a wider circle of multiple attachments depending on how many consistent relationships he/she has. Specifically, Schaffer and Emerson found that, within one month of first becoming attached, 29% of the infants had multiple attachments to someone else – to their other parent, grandparents, siblings, other relatives, friends and/or neighbours. These are called secondary attachments. Infants also display separation anxiety in these relationships. Within six months this had risen to 78%. In other words, by the age of about one year the majority of infants had developed multiple attachments, with one third of the infants having formed five or more secondary attachments, such as their father, grandparent or other sibling.

Attachment evaluation: invalid data

the data collected by Schaffer and Emerson may be invalid because it is based on mothers’ reports of their infants. Some mothers might have been less sensitive to their infants’ protests and therefore less likely to report them. Others may bias reports due to social desirability, this is because mothers will want to be seen as the child’s primary attachment. This reduces the internal validity of the data.

Attachment evaluation: temporal validity

the sample was from the 1960s. Parental care of children has changed considerably since that time. More women go out to work so many children are cared for outside the home, or fathers stay at home and become the main carer. Research shows that the number of dads who choose to stay at home and care for their children and families has quadrupled over the past 25 years (Cohn et al. 2014). Therefore, it is likely that, if a similar study to that of Schaffer and Emerson was conducted today, the findings might be different.

Attachment evaluation: biased sample

the sample was biased in a number of ways., it was from a working-class population and thus the findings may apply to that social group and not others.

Secondly the sample has Cultural bias: the study used an individualistic sample, this may not apply to collectivist societies where parenting and childcare are likely to be different. Therefore, the study lacks population validity.

Attachment evaluation: implications

one of the central discussions relating to multiple attachments is whether all attachments are equivalent or whether one or two have some special significance. Schaffer and Emerson called them secondary attachments suggesting that they are not as important. Bowlby’s view was that an infant forms one special emotional relationship (monotropy hypothesis). He said secondary attachments are important for different reasons; fathers offer a very different kind of care and siblings help infants learn how to negotiate with peers. Whereas Rutter (1995) has argued that all attachments are equivalent. He believes that all attachments are integrated to produce an infant’s attachment type. Therefore, the status of the multiple attachments made in stage 4 is unclear.

a strange situation - apc

1970

a - Ainsworth provided a way of measuring attachment of infants (12-18 months old).

p - It is a controlled observation and consists of seven 3-minute episodes & is known as the strange situation (SS):

1. Caregiver & infant enter lab, a room where there are attractive toys & comfortable furniture.

2. Stranger joins

3. Caregiver leaves

4. Caregiver returns, stranger leaves

5. Caregiver leaves

6. Stranger returns

7. Caregiver returns, stranger leaves

The key behaviours recorded are:

• Separation anxiety- the unease felt by the infant when left by caregiver

• The infants willingness to explore

• Stranger anxiety- the infant's response to the stranger

• Reunion behaviour- the way the caregiver was greeted on return

c - There are individual differences in attachment but most American children are securely attached. Appears to be an association between mothers' behaviour & attachment type- suggesting mother's behaviour determines attachment type.

a strange situation: findings -Type A

Avoidant (22%)- infant is not concerned by mother's absence & avoids contact with her at reunion. Does not prefer mother to the stranger.

a strange situation: findings -Type B

Securely attached (66%)- infant explores room when mother is present, is perturbed when she leaves but quickly comforted when she returns. Prefers mother to the stranger. Only this type is thought to lead to healthy emotional & social development.

a strange situation: findings -Type C

Resistant/Ambivalent (12%)- infant explores very little when mother present & is wary of the stranger; very upset when mother leaves but angry when she returns, both seeking & rejecting contact.

strange situation strengths

high test-retest reliability: when tested at later date most babies remain in same category. E.g. one study in Germany found that 78% of children were classified the same when tested at 1 and at 6 years and when changes occur they are linked to changes in the form of care e.g. changes in family structure. Therefore, attachment type is consistent.

strange situation weaknesses

• However, there are other studies that challenge the Internal validity of the SS. The procedure may not be measuring what it is supposed to measure.Therefore, the SS may not be testing attachment type but something else:

• For example, the behaviour of an infant in the SS may reflect the temperament hypothesis. Some infants may be born more independent or more friendly and thus their behaviour is due to innate personality characteristics, not attachment type. It may also be that some infants are more vulnerable to stress and thus respond differently in the SS.

• Another reason why the SS may lack internal validity is that behaviour in the SS reflects previous experience with separation from the mother and whether the infant is used to strangers. This idea is supported by research showing Japanese babies appear more resistant as they are rarely separated from their mother. They are therefore very upset when the mother leaves and very confused and angry when she returns. Therefore, the behaviour may reflect a child's previous experience rather than their attachment type.

• Demand characteristics of the MOTHER may also reduce internal validity. The mother is aware that she is being observed with her child & knows part of the aim of the study. She may therefore think that she is supposed to be interacting with the baby and do so more than normal. She might also do this due to social desirability bias because she wants to be seen as a good mother.

• The SS has been criticised for lacking population validity. The original study used middle class infants, therefore it may not to generalise to other social classes. The original study was also ethnocentric as all Ps were American. This means that findings may not generalise to other cultures (see next lesson on cross-cultural differences in attachment).

• Another criticism is that the SS was designed for assessing attachment in American infants and may not be valid for assessing attachment in other cultures. This is called an Imposed etic approach (use of a technique developed in one culture to study another). This is a problem because different cultures have different norms and therefore the procedure may not translate across cultures. There is a danger that USA is considered normal and other cultures that are different considered abnormal, when in fact the tool is invalid Therefore, the SS lacks cross-cultural validity (see next lesson on cross-cultural differences in attachment)

• Ethical issues: No protection from psychological harm. Some babies (secure & resistant) are seen to get upset in the Strange Situation, this is also upsetting for the mother. Mothers may also feel uncomfortable/embarrassed if their child is rated as insecure.

cross-cultural differences in attachment

Van Ijzendoorn & Kroonenberg (1988) have compared results of the SS for different cultures. They used a meta-analysis. They looked through various databases to find studies on attachment. They decided to only select studies that used the strange situation. Studies were excluded if they included special groups such as Downs's syndrome or twins & those involving fewer than 35 infants. They examined data from 2000 strange situations which came from 32 studies across 8 countries.

cross-cultural differences in attachment findings

They found striking similarities between cultures with secure being the most common type (overall average 65%). Avoidant was the next most common (particularly common in Germany - 35%) in all countries, except Japan and Israe which had high levels of resistant attachment. Therefore, there is little variation in attachment between cultures. However, they did find variation within a culture was 1.5 times as much as variation between cultures.

cross-curltural differences in attachment - conclusion

Global pattern seems to be similar to US with secure being the norm. These findings support the idea that secure attachment is important for healthy development. Cross cultural similarities may be explained by the effects of mass media on parenting views

cross-cultural differences in attachment - evaluation

• The meta-analysis only includes studies which used the SS. A problem with this is that the SS was designed for assessing attachment in American infants and may not be valid for assessing attachment in other cultures. This is known as Imposed etic (use of a technique developed in one culture to study another). This is a problem because different cultures have different norms and therefore the SS may not be appropriate for measuring attachment in other cultures. There is a danger that USA is considered normal and other cultures that are different considered abnormal, when in fact the SS itself is an invalid measuring tool of attachment. Therefore, the SS lacks cross-cultural validity.

• Internal validity: The meta-analysis only included studies that had used the strange situation to measure attachment types. However, there are concerns that the SS lacks internal validity. The procedure may not be measuring what it is supposed to measure. Therefore, the meta-analysis may not be making conclusions about attachment type but something else:

• For example, the behaviour of an infant in the SS may reflect the temperament hypothesis. Some infants may be born more independent or more friendly and thus their behaviour is due to innate personality characteristics, not attachment type. It may also be that some infants are more vulnerable to stress and thus respond differently in the SS.

• Another reason why the SS may lack internal validity is that behaviour in the SS reflects previous experience with separation from the mother and whether the infant is used to strangers. This idea is supported by research showing Japanese babies appear more resistant as they are rarely separated from their mother.
  They are therefore very upset when the mother leaves and very confused and angry when she returns. Therefore, the behaviour may reflect a child's previous experience rather than their attachment type.

• Demand characteristics of the MOTHER may also reduce internal validity. The mother is aware that she is being observed with her child & knows part of the aim of the study. She may therefore think that she is supposed to be interacting with the baby and do so more than normal. She might also do this due to social desirability bias because she wants to be seen as a good mother.
  Therefore, if there are concerns about the internal validity of the SS, this meta-analysis is not valid

• Methodological problems with the meta-analysis: A criticism is that there are methodological problems with the research because half of the studies included in the meta-analysis were done in America. Therefore, the overall averages are likely to be biased and not representative of all cultures. Furthermore, the sample sizes in some countries were too small to make safe generalisations about an entire country, e.g. only 36 Chinese infants were observed but Chinese has a huge population. Therefore, the study may lack population validity.

cross-cultural differences in attachment - evidence that the SS may lack cross-cultural validity

Israel had more resistant & less avoidant than US. These children were raised on a kibbutz & : saw few strangers but were used to separation from the mother. The fact that they were not used to strangers may account for the large % of resistant, where their anxiety was not shown when the mother left but when the stranger entered

Japanese studies found more resistant but very low avoidant, similar to Israel but probably for very different reasons. Japanese mothers rarely leave their infants so the SS may have been particularly stressful when the mother left. Such children are more likely to show resistant behaviour. The Japanese children's resistant behaviour was more likely to be due to the mother leaving than the stranger arriving.

German infants showed very large numbers of avoidant. German culture requires keeping interpersonal distance between parents & children. Children are encouraged to be independent and not clingy. The high % of avoidant is likely to reflect the ethos of encouraging independence rather than children being insecure.

the role of the father introduction

There is now an expectation in Western cultures that the father should play a greater role in bringing up children than was previously the case. The number of mothers working full time has increased in recent decades, and this has also led to fathers having a more active role.

However, whereas mothers usually adopt a more caregiving and nurturing role compared to father, fathers adopt a more play-mate role than mothers. For example, fathers are more likely than mothers to encourage risk taking in their children by engaging them in physical games. Most infants prefer contact with their father when in a positive emotional state and wanting to play. In contrast most infants prefer contact with their mother when they are distressed and need comforting.

role of the father

Schaffer & Emerson found fathers are much less likely to be the primary attachment figure -

(Fathers were rarely the first sole object of attachment (3%), but 27% of them were the joint first object)

They suggested that this was due to fathers spending less time on average with their children. Ross et al (1975) showed the number of nappies a father changed was positively correlated to the strength of their attachment! This suggests that fathers who do spend more time with their babies have the strongest attachment to their babies.

explanations for the role of the father - why they’re rarely the primary attachment figure

Biological factors such as hormones may explain why fathers are more likely to be a secondary attachment figure. Firstly, ostrogen (the female hormone) underlies caring behaviours. Oxytocin is known as the 'tend and befriend' hormone & is released in large amount after a mother gives birth in order to aid bonding with the child. Both of these hormones are more prevalent in females than males suggesting that there are biological reasons why women are more likely to be the primary attachment figure.

Social factors may also explain differences in the role of the father & mother as society's expectations of men and women are different. Certain gender stereotypes might affect men's behaviour i.e. it is thought to be "feminine" to be sensitive to the needs of others.

Evidence has found men are less sensitive to the needs of infants on a variety of scales at every age (Heermann et al 1994). However, there is no gender difference in the physiological response to an infant crying!

role of the father evaluation

• Although evidence suggests that fathers are rarely a primary attachment figure they still play an important role in being the secondary attachment figure. Research has consistently shown that fathers are more playful, physically active and generally better at providing challenging situations for their children. A lack of sensitivity from fathers can be seen as positive because it encourages the child to develop problem solving skills. The child will need to develop greater communication skills and learn to think for themselves (develop cognitive skills) if the father is less responsive than the mother.

• However, findings on the role of the father have been inconsistent because some research investigates the role of the father as a primary attachment figure & other research looks at the father as a secondary attachment figure. The differences in the studies therefore make it difficult to determine what the role of the father actually is.

• Evidence suggests that the role of the father is not as important as the role of the mother. If fathers did play a vital role, we would expect children who grow up without a father to be negatively affected. But McCallum (2004) found that children bought up with a single mother or in same sex families do not develop any differently to those brought up in a household with both a mother & father. Therefore, it is likely that fathers do play more of a secondary role in attachment which may not be as important as the role of the mother.

• However, research suggesting that mothers play a more important role in attachment can be considered to be socially sensitive. It suggests that children might be disadvantaged if their mother returns to work shortly after giving birth or if they live with a single father.

  • But research shows that when a male is the primary caregiver, they adopt behaviours more typical of a mother. Eg Field filmed 4 month old babies interacting with primary caregiver mothers, primary caregiver fathers & secondary caregiver fathers. Primary caregiving fathers (like primary caregiving mothers) spent more time smiling, imitating & holding their babies compared to secondary caregiving fathers. The key to attachment is therefore the level of responsiveness & not the gender of the parent.

conclusion for the role of the father

It is clear that men can still form secure attachments with their children, as is the case in single (male) parent families. But research has found that in two-parent families where the father is the primary caregiver, both parents often share the role of primary attachment figure. So men CAN be primary attachment figures but biological & social factors may discourage this.

role of the father economic implications

More women go out to work so many children are cared for outside the home, or fathers stay at home and become the main carer. Research shows that the number of dads who choose to stay at home and care for their children and families has quadrupled over the past 25 years (Cohn et al. 2014)

The increase in the number of stay at home dads signals that attitudes are changing to home roles, with greater acceptance for men to be the housekeeper and to look after the children. This means that when a child is born and one of the parents needs to stay at home to care for them, parents are able to select the person with the highest salary to return to work (regardless of whether it was the mother or father). In the long term this is likely to mean more families having more money to spend and thus strengthening the economy.

Another factor that may have led to the rise in stay at home dads could be recent economic recessions.

After each recession it tends t be professions such as healthcare, teaching, retail, etc. (predominantly female workforce) that recover fastest and suffer fewest redundancies than professions such as construction, office work or manufacturing (predominantly male workforce). This could indicate that the rise in stay at home dads has not been a voluntary decision.

imprinting definition

an innate readiness to develop a strong bond with the mother which takes place during a specific time in development, most likely the first few hours after birth/ hatching.

imprinting apfc

a - to investigate Imprinting

p - Lorenz (an ethologist studying animal behaviour) took a clutch of gosling eggs and divided them into two groups. One group was left with their biological mother while the other eggs were placed in an incubator. When the incubator eggs hatched the first living (moving) thing they saw was Lorenz and they soon started following him around. To test this further, Lorenz marked the two groups to distinguish them and placed them together.

f - He found the goslings he looked after had imprinted on him despite their biological mother being present. Lorenz's brood showed no recognition of their natural mother.

Lorenz noted the process of imprinting is limited by a critical period. If a young animal is not exposed to a moving object during this early critical period (usually the first 2 days) the animal will not imprint and form an attachment.

Lorenz also noted that this early imprinting had an effect on mate preferences called sexual imprinting. Animals (especially birds) will choose to mate with the same kind of object upon which they were imprinted.

c - the study supports the idea of imprinting and that there is a critical period in which this must occur.

imprinting study strengths

Supporting evidence can be found in Guiton's research. He demonstrated that leghorn chicks exposed to yellow rubber gloves for feeding them during their first few weeks, imprinted on the gloves. This shows that young animals imprint on any moving object that is present during their critical period. Guiton also found that male chickens later tried to mate with the gloves, showing that early imprinting is linked to later reproductive behaviour.

imprinting study weakness

• Animal studies cannot generalise to humans because humans are capable of more complex thought processes. Human behaviour is governed by conscious decisions. Humans are born much more helpless and "incomplete" with a very immature brain compared with birds. The bonding and growing take place over longer periods of time. However, animal studies can be a useful pointer in understanding human behaviour, but we should always seek to replicate research in humans.

• Previously imprinting was seen as a process that was rigid and irreversible, however now it's seen as more flexible. E.g. Guiton found that he could reverse the imprinting in chickens who had initially tried to mate with the rubber gloves. He found after spending time with their own species, they were able to engage in normal sexual behaviour with other chickens. Therefore, Lorenz's theory is too simplistic as fails to take into account later learning.

Harlow (1959) - attachment based on comfort or feeding

A: to investigate whether attachment is based on comfort or feeding

P: Harlow created two artificial 'mothers' with different heads. One was made of wire and fed the monkey using a milk bottle whereas the other was covered in soft cloth, and also fed the monkey. Other versions of the monkeys had no feeder bottle. Eight infant Rhesus monkeys were studied for a period of 165 days. They were placed in a cage with both a wire and cloth covered mother. For 4 of the monkeys the milk bottle was on the cloth covered 'mother' and for the other 4 monkeys the milk bottle was on the wire 'mother'. The amount of time each infant spent with the two different' mothers was measured Observations were made of the infant responses when scared by a mechanical teddy bear.

F: All 8 monkeys spent most of their time with the cloth-covered mother whether or not this had the feeding bottle. Those monkeys who fed from the wire monkey only spent a short amount of time getting milk and then returned to the cloth-covered mother. When frightened, all monkeys clung to the cloth-covered mother and when playing with new objects the monkeys often kept one foot on the cloth-covered mother for reassurance.

C: Therefore these findings show infants do not develop an attachment to the person who feeds them but to the person offering contact comfort.

Harlow - long lasting effects

Later Harlow reported that the motherless monkeys developed abnormally even when they received contact comfort. They were socially abnormal; they froze or fled when approached by other monkeys.

They were also sexually abnormal; they did not show normal mating behaviour and did not cradle their own babies. Also found a critical period for these effects. If the motherless monkeys spent time with their monkey peers before they were 3 months old, they seemed to recover. If monkeys spent more than 6 months with the wire monkey they could not recover.

Harlow - strengths

This experiment can be justified to an extent as it had an effect on our understanding of the processes of attachment and has led to better care for human and primate infants.

Harlow - weaknesses

• One criticism is that the artificial mothers' varied. The two heads were different which may act as a confounding variable. It is possible that the reason the infant monkeys preferred one mother to the other was because the cloth covered mother had a more attractive head. Therefore, the conclusions lack internal validity.

• Animal studies cannot generalise to humans because humans are capable of more complex thought processes. Human behaviour is governed by conscious decisions. However, the observations seen in animals are also mirrored in humans. E.g. Harlow's monkey study is supported by Schaffer and Emerson who found infants were not most attached to the person who fed them. Therefore, animal studies can be a useful pointer in understanding human behaviour, but we should always seek to replicate research in humans.

• Ethical issues: the study created lasting emotional harm as the monkeys later found it difficult to form relationships with their peers. However, it could be argued that these animal experiments are necessary as they could never be carried out on humans. A human baby could not be separated from its mother merely for the sake of an experiment. Instead, we have to rely on very rare cases of extreme neglect such as the case study of Genie who was abandoned in a room in her house for the first 13 ½ years of her life. As these awful case studies happen so infrequently, we need to use experiments such as Harlow's to understand certain aspects of behaviour.

clinical conditioning

learning by association

A baby is born with reflexes. Food produces pleasure. The person providing food becomes associated with pleasure & : becomes a conditioned stimulus. The mother then becomes a source of pleasure independent of whether thy food is present. This is the basis of the attachment bond

operant conditioning

learning by reward

according to this theory rewarded behaviours are repeated. After feeding, the hunger drive is reduced and this is rewarding. Since the mother provides the food to reduce the hunger drive, she becomes a secondary reinforcer and the infant strives to be close to her & therefore becomes attached.

learning theory (behaviourism)

argues that behaviour not innate (inborn) but is learnt as the result of classical or operant conditioning

learning theory strengths

A strength of Learning theory is that it is based on scientific experiments which were carried out on animals in lab conditions e.g. Pavlov's dogs and Skinner's rats. This allows high control of extraneous variables which means we can infer cause and effect. Therefore, it can be concluded that associations and rewards can lead to learning. Thus it can be inferred from this research that feeding does lead to attachment.

learning theory weaknesses

• The theory suggests that attachment is associated with feeding, however this is not the case as shown by Harlow's monkeys. Harlow (1959) showed rhesus monkeys went to cloth covered mum when frightened by toy drummer for comfort when it was the wire mum who fed them. Therefore, the core idea of feeding leading to attachment is flawed.

• Further evidence that feeding does not lead to attachment comes from Schaffer & Emerson in their study of Glasgow babies. They found that in about 40% of human infants the adult who fed, bathed & changed the infant was not the person to which the infant was the most attached. Infants were more likely to be attached to adults who were responsive to them and provided them with much stimulation is the form of touching & playing. Therefore, the core idea of feeding leading to attachment is flawed

• A final criticism is that Learning theory is too simple, it reduces complex human behaviour of attachment down to learning through rewards & association. This is known as reductionism. In fact, there are other explanations of attachment e.g evolutionary theory which states that attachment is innate and promotes survival of the infant. Learning theory therefore only focuses on nurture and does not consider nature.

Bowlby’s evolutionary (monotropic) theory of attachment

Bowlby's (1969) theory is based on the ideas of imprinting. According to this theory attachment is an innate & adaptive process for both parent & child. It evolved because it promotes survival. According to Darwin's theory of evolution any behaviour which increases successful reproduction makes it more likely for those genes to remain. Attachment promotes survival in many ways: short term survival, long term survival.

The Evolutionary theory argues the innate tendency is to form a strong, qualitatively different attachment to one individual. Bowlby argued that infants have a hierarchy of attachments at the top of which is the central caregiver. This is called the monotropy hypothesis that argues that it is this primary attachment figure that forms the basis of the internal working model.

Bowlby argued that there was a critical period during which a child could form an attachment (up to 2.5 years) or the child would suffer long term damage.

Bowlby’s evolutionary theory - short term survival

attachment results in a desire to maintain proximity, anxiety on separation and thus ensures safety. The theory suggests a role of social releasers such as crying & smiling to encourage a response. Other humans are innately programmed to respond to these social releasers. This ensures survival of the infant.

Bowlby’s evolutionary theory - long term survival

the attachment styles we learn as infants and young children become an internal working model for what we believe relationships should be like. This provides us with a template for how to behave in future relationships. Therefore, if the child develops a good IM they will be able to form secure romantic relationships, which makes having children more likely. Thus ensuring survival of their genes.

Bowlby’s evloutionary theory strengths

• Support for the internal working model is provided by Hazan & Shaver who found that adult romantic styles were related to childhood attachment styles using a love quiz. This questionnaire consisted of 3 parts and asked Ps questions about current relationship experiences, attachment history & attitudes toward love in order to identify current and childhood attachment types. The researchers analysed responses from a cross section of the population who had volunteered to take part in the study. Ps who were Secure in childhood rated their adult love experiences as happy & trusting & their relationships lasted longer than insecure types (10 years compared to 5 or 6 years). Ps who were Resistant in childhood experienced obsession, emotional highs & lows and extreme attraction & jealousy in their adult relationships. They worried that their partners would abandon them. Ps who were Avoidant in childhood typically feared intimacy in romantic relationships and they believed that they did not need love to be happy. These findings support the idea that early attachment experiences continue into adulthood as the internal working model proposes

• There is evidence to support the monotropy idea. Evidence to support Bowlby comes from cross-cultural research in Zaire by Tronick et al (1992). The Efe tribe live in extended family groups. The infants are looked after and even breastfed by different women but usually slept with their mother at night. By the age of 6 months the infants do show a preference for their mothers, a single primary attachment. This supports the idea that we have one attachment greater than any other

Bowlby’s evolutionary theory or attachment- weaknesses

• However, a criticism of the love quiz is that there are some methodological issues. The questionnaire uses retrospective data which means that participants have to think back many months or years and their memories may not be correct. Also, as it is a questionnaire Ps may be affected by social desirability bias. As romantic relationships & childhood experiences are personal topics, Ps may change their answers as they wish to be seen in the best light. Finally, as Ps volunteered the sample is likely to be biased with people who are happy in their relationships more likely to take part. This means that the findings may not represent the population and therefore the results can't be generalised. Therefore, as the supporting evidence for early attachment influencing later relationships is flawed, the internal working model and therefore the evolutionary theory may not actually be valid.

• There are other problems with IWM part of the theory because it argues that childhood attachments provide a template for future relationships. However many other factors influence later relationships. e.g. experience of divorce during childhood or cheating within their past adult relationships.Furthermore some suggest we have an innate temperament that determines how well we forn relationships. Therefore as there may be other factors that affect later relationships besides your IWM, the theory is deterministic.

• There is evidence to refute the monotropy idea. Some disagree and feel that healthy psychological development is not best served by having one primary attachment. Different attachments may serve different needs in the infant eg. fathers style of play is more often physically stimulating & unpredictable whereas mothers are more likely to hold infants, soothe them, attend to their needs & read them stories. Therefore, maybe there isn't an attachment that is more important, they may be equally important in different ways

• One criticism of the critical period part of the theory is that it may not so absolute. Research has shown children who are adopted after the critical period can form attachments if extra effort is put in. Therefore 2 : years may be a sensitive period rather than a cut-off point. This shows that Bowlby's idea of the critical period is flawed

influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of the internal working model

Bowlby's Attachment theory suggests that early relationships with our caregivers provide the basis on how we will conduct our later adult relationships. This idea is termed the continuity hypothesis.

The attachment styles we learn as infants and young children become an internal working model for what we believe relationships should be like. This provides us with a template for how to behave in future relationships. The internal working model is similar to a schema as it shapes your expectations within relationships.

Therefore, the expectations we have of relationships that form in childhood will continue into adulthood

• Bowlby's research suggests we develop an attachment style. An attachment style consists of two attitudes. First is an attitude about ourselves, termed self-esteem. Second is an attitude about other people - termed interpersonal trust. These two attitudes develop from our earliest interactions with caregivers. If our caregiver makes us feel highly valued and we feel that they are dependable and reliable we are likely to develop high self-esteem and trust other people. This is the basis of a secure attachment style. The absence of these conditions might result in the development of an insecure attachment style.

Ainsworth et al (1978) suggested there were 3 types of attachment caused by these differing interactions with caregivers

• Secure attachment (Type B) occurs when caregivers are responsive to the infant's needs. Infants trust their caregivers and are not afraid of being abandoned as they know that they are loved.

• Insecure/ avoidant attachment (Type A) occurs when caregivers are distant and do not want intimacy with the infant. Infants want to be close to the caregiver but learn that they are likely to be rejected

• Insecure/ resistant attachment (Type C) - occurs when caregivers are inconsistent and overbearing in their affection. Infants are anxious because they never know when and how the caregivers will respond

According to continuity hypothesis, a child who has a secure attachment style will develop an Internal Working Model that will lead to positive interactions with their friends and romantic partners, and better parenting skills. But a child with an insecure attachment style will develop an Internal Working Model that will lead to negative interactions with their friends and romantic partners and they will struggle with their parenting skills. In other words, the effects of early attachment styles will continue into adulthood

strengths for romantic relationships

Support for the internal working model is provided by Hazan & Shaver who found that adult romantic styles were related to childhood attachment styles using a love quiz. This questionnaire consisted of 3 parts and asked Ps questions about current relationship experiences, attachment history & attitudes toward love in order to identify current and childhood attachment types. The researchers analysed responses from a cross section of the population who had volunteered to take part in the study.

Ps who were Secure in childhood rated their adult love experiences as happy & trusting & their relationships lasted longer than insecure types (10 years compared to 5 or 6 years).

Ps who were Resistant in childhood experienced obsession, emotional highs & lows and extreme attraction & jealousy in their adult relationships. They worried that their partners would abandon them.

Ps who were Avoidant in childhood typically feared intimacy in romantic relationships and they believed that they did not need love to be happy.

These findings support the idea that early attachment experiences do continue into adulthood as continuity hypothesis proposes

weaknesses of romantic relationships

However, a criticism of the love quiz is that there are some methodological issues. The questionnaire uses retrospective data which means that participants have to think back many months or years and their memories may not be correct. Also, as it is a questionnaire Ps may be affected by social desirability bias. As romantic relationships & childhood experiences are personal topics, Ps may change their answers as they wish to be seen in the best light. Finally, as Ps volunteered the sample is likely to be biased with people who are happy in their relationships more likely to take part. This means that the findings may not represent the population and therefore the results can't be generalised Inerefore, as the supporting evidence for early attachment influencing later relationships is flawed, the continuity hypothesis may not actually be valid

strengths of childhood friendships

• Supporting evidence for the Continuity hypothesis affecting friendships comes from the Minnesota parent-child study. This followed Ps from infancy to late adolescence & found continuity between early attachment & later social behaviour. For example, those classed as securely attached in infancy were rated higher in social competency in later childhood, were more popular and more empathetic. This therefore supports the theory that early attachment influences later childhood relationships.

  • The theory claims that a lack of attachment during the critical period would result in a lack of internal working model. Supporting evidence shows that children who have experienced severe neglect or frequent changes of caregiver develop attachment disorder. They have no preferred attachment figure, an inability to interact with others & problems relating to others at age 5. This therefore supports that negative experiences in early attachment can influence later childhood relationships in a negative way

strengths for parenting skills

Supporting evidence for the Continuity hypothesis shows that mothers brought up in care are likely to interact poorly with their own children. This is because they had no WM to provide a template for how to look after their children effectively. Harlow's study demonstrates this point as Harlow found that the motherless monkeys did not cradle their own offspring as they didn't know how This therefore supports that the theory that early attachment influences later parenting skills.

influence of early attachment on childhood and adult relationships, including the role of the internal working model general evaluation weaknesses

• A criticism is that the theory is deterministic as it implies that early experiences WILL determine future relationships. However, many children with insecure attachments can experience happy adult relationships. In addition, the deterministic nature of this theory also means that it can be considered to be socially sensitive. This is because it blames parents for any later relationship problems. Essentially, it argues poor parental interactions WILL cause later relationship issues.

• A criticism of the theory is that it is reductionist, as it focuses on the role of nurture. This is because it argues that the behaviour of the caregiver causes the infant attachment type and subsequent adult attachment type. Therefore, the theory does not consider the role of nature. The temperament hypothesis would argue that it is our innate temperament that determines how well we form relationships (regardless of parenting). This shows that the continuity hypothesis is too simple to explain adult relationships.

seperation

separating an infant from a caregiver

deprivation

occurs when a child has formed an important attachment but is then separated from the major attachment figure and this separation has caused some bond disruption: separation plus the disruption or loss of attachment. This could occur when a parent dies or a divorce happens.

bowlby’s maternal deprivation hypothesis

• Bowlby believed that emotional care (having an attachment) was as important for development as physical care.

• Bowlby argued that breaking the maternal bond with the child during early years likely to have serious effects on its intellectual, social & emotional development.

• He argued that the child would have difficulty forming relationships with other people and would be at risk of developing behavioural disorders.
  Bowlby claimed these effects were irreversible & permanent.
  He went so far as to say that a child who is denied maternal care because of frequent and/or prolonged separation would become emotionally disturbed if this happens before the age of about 2.5 years and if there is no mother-substitute avanable. He felt there was a continuing risk up until about 5

bowlby’s key study

This theory is based on his supporting study of 44 thieves (1944). Bowlby conducted research with 88 clients (aged from 5 to 16) from the child guidance clinic where he worked. 44 of the children had been referred to the clinic because of stealing. Bowlby identified 14 of these children as affectionless psychopaths, because they appeared to have little sense of social responsibility & showed no guilt & remorse for their crimes (they lacked a social conscience). Other children who had not been referred for crimes acted as a control group. Bowlby interviewed the children & their families and built up a picture of their early life experience. He found that 86% of those thieves diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths had experienced frequently early separations from their mothers (due to stays in foster homes or hospitals), whereas very few of the non-psychopath thieves (17%) and almost none of the controls had experienced such separation. This led Bowlby to conclude that early separation affected later emotional development.

bowlby’s key study strengths

Bowlby's theory has had many important applications. It gave rise to a positive change in infant care. Before this theory only physical care was considered important. The theory led to orphanage care being improved to take account of emotional needs including trying to keep children in one foster home. Also provisions were made for parents to stay in hospital with young children & longer visiting hours allowed.

bowlby’s key study weaknesses

• However, there are criticisms of Bowlby's 44 thieves research. The data collection is retrospective (i.e. the children and their parents had to think back many years to the child's younger days). This can produce inaccuracies. In addition, there is a potential for Researcher bias- Bowlby conducted all aspects himself and diagnosed children as affectionless psychopaths. As the study was conducted to test his theory there could have been expectancy effects.

• Rutter (1981) claimed the fact that early separation & later readjustment are linked does not mean that one caused the other. Instead he claimed that it is the situation surrounding the deprivation, not necessarily the separation itself, that leads to problems. E.g. for deprivation caused by parental divorce it may be the stress surrounding the divorce that is the problem. To test this he carried out his own study of young boys (the Isle of Wight study). Over 2000 boys between the age of 9 & 11 were interviewed & so were their families. It was found that:

• if separation was due to physical illness or death of the mother then there was no correlation with delinquency

• if separation were due to psychiatric illness or discord within the family then the boys were 4 times more likely to become delinquent. This suggests that it is mainly family discord rather than separation as such that causes the difficulties & maladjustment.

• Bowlby's work has also been criticised as it is suggested that the time the research was done it was just after war time and during the war women had assumed male jobs. It is suggested that perhaps Bowlby's theories were used to make women stay at home with their children to free up the workplace for the returning men. Therefore, Bowlby's research is socially sensitive.

• Bowlby's idea of a critical period has been challenged. For example, some studies have shown that with extra effort children can recover - now it is called a sensitive period rather than a critical one.

bowlby’s key study conclusion

Important that we should consider why some children recover from their effects and this is where the focus should be. Rutter tried to change the emphasis of Bowlby's theory rather than reject it completely. He argues that maternal deprivation should be classed as a vulnerability factor rather than a definite sign of future maladjustment.

Institutionalisation

refers to children brought up in care homes such as orphanages. They are unlikely to have any contact with family members. Institutionalisation causes privation

privation

the failure to form an attachment. Studies have investigated the effects of institutional care.

effects of institutionalisation key study - procedure

Key study - Rutter et al. (2007)

P - On-going longitudinal study, comparing Romanian orphans who were adopted by UK families with 52 UK-born adoptees who were placed with UK families before they were six months of age.

The Romanian adoptees entered the orphanage as small babies between one and two weeks old. Conditions in the institutions were very poor. Romanian children showed evidence of severe malnourishment. They were in the bottom third of the population for weight and head size.

Of the Romanian orphans 58 babies were adopted before they were 6 months old, 59 were adopted between 6 and 24 months of age.

Some of the children have been followed up at ages four, six and eleven years, using a range of measures including interviews, observations of the child's behaviour, and teacher/ peer reports.

Summary of procedure: three groups for comparison:

1. UK born adoptees (control group)

2. Romanian adoptees, adopted before 6 months

3. Romanian adoptees, adopted after 6 months

effects of institutionalisation key study - findings

IQ

At age four: when Romanian orphans first arrived they showed evidence of severe cognitive deficiency and were severely malnourished. Most of the children adopted before 6 months caught up with the UK born adoptees in size and cognitive ability by age 4. Those adopted after 6 months had on-going deficits.

At age eleven: differences in IQ persisted: adopted before 6 months mean IQ was 102, if after 6 months mean IQ was 86.

Attachment:

At age six: There was a difference depending on whether Romanian children were adopted before or after 6 months. Rutter et al. found evidence of disinhibited attachment which they defined as 'a pattern of attention seeking behaviours with a relative lack of selectivity in social relationships'. Children showing this attachment type would be more likely to go off with strangers and make inappropriate contact with strangers e.g. sit on knee, hold hand, cuddle them. This was far more likely in those adopted after 6 months.

Strong disinhibition:

UK adoptees - 3.8%

Romanian adopted (before 6 month: - 8.9%

Romanian adopted (6-24 months) - 26.1%

This suggests that disinhibited attachments are more likely in children who have experienced longer periods in institutions, and more likely in those who experienced the privation of Romanian orphanages compared with UK adoptees.

At age 11: The disinhibited behaviour pattern persisted in many of the adoptees.

effects of institutionalisation key study - conclusion

Rutter concluded that for some, the effects of living in an institution and not forming attachments within Bowlby's critical period could be long term, particularly in late adoptees. But the effects of institutionalisation can be reduced with extra effort and with early adoption.

The key findings seem to be that institutionalisation and the subsequent privation is a vulnerability factor. If suitable effort is put in to support the chid, then the effects can be minimised.

effects of institutionalisation key study - strengths

• A strength of this study is that it is carried out over a long period of time and uses a range of measures to assess the children's behaviour, including semi-structured interviews, observations, teacher/peer reports. The use of different methods provides a rich and detailed picture of the adoptees functioning in different areas of their development in the long term. This provides both qualitative and quantitative data, using different research methods helps to overcome the weaknesses of other methods - this is called Triangulation.

• A strength of the research is that it has positive implications. Today most babies are adopted within the first week of birth and research shows that adoptive mothers and children are just as securely attached as non-adoptive families. The research also led to changes in Institutions around the world, for example they now offer more emotional care and a higher child to staff ratio.

effects of institutionalisation key study - weaknesses

• One of the problems of this research is that it is a longitudinal study. This research method has problems such as people dropping out of the study as it lasts many years. This is called attrition. It is likely that particular types of people are more likely to drop out, this will cause bias in the sample. In this case it is possible that more troubled children dropped out. Therefore, the true effects of privation may never be known as the children with the biggest problems are no longer being studied

• This is a natural experiment (as the Ps would have been adopted even if they had not been in the study). As the IV is naturally occurring & the study takes place in a natural environment we cannot infer cause and effect. This means that it may not be institutionalisation alone which is causing the effect of disinhibited attachment especially as some of the Romanian children developed normal attachments (even if they were adopted after 6 months). This means that other factors must play a role in attachment e.g.:

  • The temperament hypothesis would argue that innate personality characteristics cause attachment type which can explain the individual differences in each group.

  • In fact, Rutter suggested that it could be that those children who smile more get more attention in the orphanage and therefore may have some early attachment experiences and consequently have normal attachments as they get older.

    • It could also be the environment in the adoptive home that will determine the attachment type shown throughout childhood. For example, how responsive and sensitive adoptive parents are to the child.