political actors

Example: women (penny wong... I love penny wong!!)

Political parties

Associations formed around people with shared ideological beliefs seeking to influence lawmaking through election to parliament, which are often well organised and disciplined with a broad focus. They are characterised by their participation in elections as candidates

Major parties

Political parties which are capable of winning a majority of seats in the House of Representatives and are therefore capable of forming government. Characteristics include a distinct political philosophy, a comprehensive policy platform, a broad support base and the capacity to contest most parliamentary seats. Eg Labor and Liberals

Minor parties

Parties capable of winning seats successively in parliament, but not capable of forming government in their own right. May seek to form a coalition with other parties to form government (nationals) or may seek the balance of power in the senate (greens), and can typically achieve representation in the senate due to proportional voting

Micro parties

Parties which are unlikely to win multiple seats and tend to campaign on a narrow range of issues. They are unlikely to achieve parliamentary representation in successive elections. For example, the motoring enthusiasts party

Left/Right wing

• Left wing - bigger government (More government intervention), more progressive, more democratic (needs/wishes of the majority over individuals)

• Right wing - Prioritises individual rights and autonomy, smaller government (less government assistance), more conservative

Labor party

• Traditionally aligns with worker and union interests

• Advocates for social justice and equitable wealth distribution

• Centre-left (Although has some centre-right economic policies)

Liberal party

• Represents business and rural interests

• Emphasis on free market policies and individual freedoms

• More conservative social policies (supporters tend to be older, richer, male, and more socially conservative)

The Greens

• Attract young, educated and urban middle class voters concerned about ecological sustainability

• Influence legislation through holding the balance of power in the senate

One nation

• Offers nationalist populism, appealing to voters disillusioned with rapid social and economic changes and immigration

• Appeals to grievances, leading to unpredictable electoral participation and parliamentary behaviours

Party discipline

• Requires that party members support their party in parliament (Can disagree behind closed doors but need to vote and be positive about the choice in parliament)

• Results in the party staying in government (as their majority is guaranteed) and the government winning every lower house vote

• Causes executive dominance

Independent MPs

• A member of parliament who is not a member of a political party (A delegate or trustee, but not a partisan representative)

  • Eg Zali Steggall who represents the seat of Warringah

  • Currently 10 independents in the HoR

Voter volatility

Refers to whether voters consistently support the same political party/candidate from election to election

Economic voter

• Acts rationally and out of self-interest

• Gathers information on each party/candidate, considers which is offering the best outcome and votes accordingly

Class voter

• Applies for societies with strong socio-economic class divisions (Less relevant in Australia)

• Voters support the political party that represents their socio-economic class

Partisan voter

• Based on the assumption that people develop a loyalty for a political party when they start to become politically aware (socialised, mainly from family and peers) and then vote for the first time according to their political loyalty

Factors affecting economic voters

• Whether the PM vs the opposition leader is a strong leader, trustworthy, in touch and likeable

• How well the economy is doing

  • Unemployment, interest rates, inflation

  • Federal budget (surplus or deficit), public debt

• Government backflipping on election promises (Gillard 2010 Carbon Tax)

• Issues in the news (eg COVID and scomo)

• Local issues (in rural areas)

Political actors

Anyone who interacts or performs and action in a political system (can be individuals or organisations)

Pressure group

An organised group of people who share common interests, attitudes or beliefs and take deliberate action that is aimed at influencing public policy

• Differ from political parties as they aren’t aiming for political representation

• Activities conducted by pressure groups have become a major means of non-violent participation in modern democracies

Pharmacy guild

• Represents community pharmacies

• Forges bipartisan relationships with both major political parties to ensure community pharmacies’ interests remain protected regardless of election outcomes

• Negotiates favourable conditions within the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) which subsidises expensive medicines

  • Successfully lobbied for commitments from both major parties to support the continuation and funding of the PBS before the 2019 election

Climate 200

• Emerged in the lead up to the 2022 election to represent the cause of climate change by getting climate focused independents elected to parliament

  • Made financial contributions to Teals campaigns, lifted their credibility and visibility

  • 6 Teals were newly elected in 2022 alongside the 2 re-elected

Australian council of trade unions

• Australia’s peak trade union body

• Unions pay fees to affiliate with the ACTU, providing it with significant resources to lobby ministers and take direct action

• Works to protect worker’s rights, improve workplace conditions, and influence government policy and industrial relations laws

  • ‘Change the Rules’ campaign aimed to reduce inequality in workplace relations laws, focusing on reforming the Fair Work Act 2009

Advantages/disadvantages of economic voter model

Advantages:

• Means voters know what they’re voting for (giving the government consent to govern)

• People believe they consider alternatives when they vote

Disadvantages:

• Doesn’t explain party loyalty when conditions change

• Clear cases when voters choose a candidate with policies against their best interests

Advantages/disadvantages of class voter model

Advantages:

• Highly predictive in 1970s Britan

• Explains party loyalty (social classes rarely change)

Disadvantages:

• Less predictive in less class-conscious societies

• Traditional socio-economic classes have broken down

Advantages/disadvantages of partisan voter model

Advantages:

• Explains why most voters don’t switch parties

• Explains why people typically have the same political opinions as their parents

Disadvantages:

• Difficult to accurately measure partisan loyalty

Why are issues in representation important

Elected members of parliament are meant to represent the views and ideals of all members of the community and should reflect the people themselves.

Example of an issue in representation

Women - Women represent approximately 51% of the Australian population but have historically been underrepresented in parliament. The proportion of women in parliament has increased from 25.3% in 2002 to 49.6% in 2025

Women’s representation in the ALP

• Women make up 56.1% of the caucus

• Women make up 46.3% of the outer ministry and cabinet

• Women make up 52.2% of cabinet

• Gender quotas were established in 1994

  • By 2002, 35% of candidates preselected for winnable federal parliamentary seats must be women

Women’s representation in the Liberal party

• No gender quotas

• Sussan Ley was elected their first female leader in 2025 and was replaced by Angus Taylor 9 months later

• 30% of the party room are women