Amniotes and Angiosperms

for bio 005b

Homeostasis

regulating internal, chemical,

and physical conditions within

living organism

Osmregulation

control solute

concentrations and

balance the loss and

gain of water

Osmlarity and how to describe osmolarity of soolutins relative to one another

hyperosmotic — plants like this

isoosmatic — animals like this

hypoosmotic

Why H2O is essential to plants and animals

water has special properties: cohesion (sticking tgether) and adhesion (sticking to walls)

plants and animals use the inherent features of water to move water throughout the body.

Difference between osmoregulators and osmoconformers (and environments they belong in)

Osmoregulators actively control their own internal water and solute concentrations — live in freshwater/terrestrial areas

osmoconformers match their internal concentration to their surroundings (isosomatic with surroundings) —live in marine areas

What is water potential?

water potential works like if water potential is higher outside it means that water flows in (water potential refers to the amnt of water concentration and water mves high to low)

equation:water potential = solute potential + pressure potential.

ex: H2O has water potential of 0

if water potential outside is positive then water is going to go inside

water movement in plants & associated terms

utilizes basic functions of H2O (adhesion and Cohesion)

^water in xylem is known as xylem sap

plants need turgidity

^turgid pressure is while plant cells have water in the vacuole (organelle which stores water food and waste) creating pressure on the walls of the plant — this is important for water flow!

xylem —> flow from root hairs and up the roots to leaves, this happens because the water potential is more negative at the top creating a water potential gradient making the water go up because water potential moves from high to low

transpiration (negative pressure) —> water is pulled up from the roots and outside the plant cells

cavitation - air bubbles which is bad for plants because it creates air bubbles in the plants water transport system blocking flow of water from the roots to the leaves

3 strategies to dispose of nitrogenous waste in animals (and relationship to environment and why strategies are necessary)

Strateegiies are necessary becaues nitrogenous waste (byproducts from processing nutrients) produces ammonia in aquous solutions the body which is poisonous to organisms and also negatively impacts water balance

environment effects the strategy because of the water that needs to be saved

1. most aquatic animals including most bony fishes— excrete straight ammonia because they live in water which can easily be diluted by surrounding water

2. mammals, most amphibians,sharks, and some bony fishes—use urea and is low toxicity but needs a lot of water (costly)

3. birds, reptiles, insects, land snails — since they need to be light its uric acid and is a complete paste and is very costly

organs and functions of excretory system

parts of a kidney

renal arrtery— supplies blood

renal vein— drains blood

renal pelvis— collects urine

Nephrone types — do filtering (contain capillaries)

*kidneys filter 1600L of blood per day!

Nephron 3 steps

1. glomular filtration —H2O & small solutes filtered out of blood to produce filtrate

2. Tubular reabsorption—reabsorb sugars,amino acids,vitamins, other organic molecules

3. tubular secretion—adds last bits of wast

excretion happens after!

Nephron organization

1. bowman’s capsule fluid from bloodstream into lumen of Boman’s capsule

2. proximal tubule—reabsorption of ions,H2O and nutrients (permeable to H2O aquaporins)

3. loop of henle(descending limb and then the ascending limb)—creates concentration gradients which help absorb H2O+Salt (think in terms of osmolarity

4. distal tubule —Regulates K+ and NaCl concentration

5. collecting duct—processes filtrate into urine

What is nutrition and why is the acquisiition of it important?

nutrition is taking in and using food, to extract several aspects of it small enough to be enough for cellular uptake

Biological molecules and uses in living organisms

Proteins— do a bunch of stuff in thte body lol

lipids —make cellular membranes and store energy

nucleic acids—store information

carbohydrates—provide energy

Differences between and similarities between plant and animal nurient acquisition

• animals are heterotrophic so they eat other organisms to

  • obtain energy for cellular (ATP)

  • acquire raw materials —building blocks + essential nutrients

• Plants are autotrophic

  • use energy from sunlight and oxygen to make sugar

  • don’t eat other organisms and construct many nutrients

  • *still require essential nutrients/elements which they can get from the environment by uptaking the nutrients from root hairs into xylem

  • plants do digestion similar to animals animals have dedicated organs to do it while plants do it at a cellular level

Phyllotaxy?

how to calculate the the leaf area index which is uhhhh idk

Leaf area index and relation to nutrient acquisition?

uhhhh idk

direction of flow in xylem and phloem & what is carried in each

what is phloem sap and how is it transported

steps in animal food processing

1. ingestion—act of feeding

2. propulsion—food pushed to stomach

3. digestion—mechanical and chemical breakdown

4. absorption—cells uptake nutrients

5. elimination (defecation) —-remove undigested materrial
   
   alimentarry canal

   • food moves in one direction

   • 2 opening

the path of food from mouth to anus and organs of digestive system and know function and vocab

• tongue - shapes bolus (food mashed together)

• salivary glands - releases saliva

• oral cavity - teeth mash

• pharynx - leads to 2 passageways

• esophagus - peristalsis pushes food to sphincter

• liver - production and storage of bile

  • gallbladder (bile green-yellow fluid digests fats)

• stomach - which do chemical and mechanical breakdown

• pancreas - enzymes which which break down sugars, fats, and starches

• small/large intestine - absorption, processing, and waste

• rectum —> anus - dedication

digestion beginning at the mouth 2 steps

a. trachea open

• epiglottis up (opens path to trachea on the left)

• glottis down and open

• esophageal sphincter contracted (prevents air from going into the esophagus

b. esophagus down

• epiglottis down

• glottis up and closed

• esophageal sphincter relaxed ( allows food to go through the esophagus

stomach processes

1. stores food

2. processes food into liquid (chyme)

a bunch of stuff work together to produce and secrete gastric juice

• inside the stomach the lining is epithelium

  • chief cells secrete pepsinogen, parietal cells secrete HCl which activates pepsinogen, pepsinogen -> pepsin (activated by acidic environment), pepsin-> digests protein in the stomach

small intestine and large intestine

small intestine has capillaries, and does absorption, digestion, and waste

Why gas exchange is essential for living organisms

the organisms exchange oxygen and CO2 with the environment because they have mitochondria which do cellular respiration

for large organisms simple diffusion isn’t enough and they need to use bulk flow which has partial pressures (high to low)

review

transpiration (plants release water vapor into the atmosphere)

• passive transport cools plants, and results in a bulk flow of minerals

• guard cells regulate the opening and closing of stomata through changes in turgor pressure

• transpiration is regulated by the stomata opening and closing which depends on light humidity and temperature

• when turgor pressure is high, guard cells(kind of like the gate of stomata) open and the stomata(hole) is out in the open which releases water and vice versa is true

• stomata can be different in plants depending on environment

capillaries

• blood air

• smallest blood vessels diffuse

tradeoffs for plants and animals for gas exchange

minimize water loss and maximize CO2

turgor pressure mechanism explanation

absorption of the K+ in the guard cells makes the stomata open and water potential becomes negative in the guard cells which makes water flow inside of the cells easier??

upper respiratory tract

nasal cavity

pharynx

larynx

trachea

lower respiratory tract

right lung

left lung

bronchus - large airway which leads from trachea to windpipe to lung

bronchiole - plural of bronchus

alveoli - balls

anatomy of the heart

four chambers

• right atrium (left) -recieves deoxygenated blood which is low pressure

• left atrium (right) - recieves oxygenated blood which is low pressure

• right ventricle - pumps deoxygenated blood (high pressure or becomes when it recieves oxygen

• left ventricle - pumps oxygenated blood

deoxygenated blood travel

superior vena cava and inferior vena cava (receives from body) —> right atrium —> right ventricle—> pulmonary artery

oxygenated blood travel

pulmonary vein —> left atrium —> left ventricle —> aorta

pericardium - heart lining

right atrium --(tricuspid valve)--> right ventricle--(pulmoonary valve)--> pulmonary artery

left atrium--(mitral valve)--> left ventricle--(aortic valve-->aorta

things that include capillaries and why are capillaries important

kidneys, intestine, liver

mammalian circulation

pulmonary circuit (O2 poor blood to lungs)

1. right ventricle

2. pulmonary artery

3. capillaries of lungs (blood becomes oxygenated)

4. pulmonary vein

5. left atrium

systemic circuit

1. left ventricle

2. aorta and travels to capillaries of the head & forelimbs capillaries of abdominal organs and hind limbs (blood becomes deoxygenated)

3. inferior vena cava & superior vena cava

4. right atrium

   systemic circuit

5. right ventricle

veins vs arteries

walls of arteries have 2 layers of tissue and are thick to accomadate high pressure blood pumped fromo heart

veins bring blood back to heart to lower pressure and require vales to ensure unidirectional flow (gravity would make it go down because veins go upstream since theyre deoxygenated)

hormones, glands, and target cells ? processes they regulate ?

hormones are secreted signalling molecules that circulate throughout the body and stimulate target cells

• metaloblism

• growth and development

• body defense

• homeostatic processes

glands are any structure that makes & secretees hormones

target cells are activated by hormones and have a response which do something

two systems of regulation and control

nervous system (can overlap with endocrine because neurons can regulate release of hormones)

• fast acting and short lived

• neurons —> synapses

endocrine system

• slower, broad areas, long-lived (secrete hormones in blood

three classes of hormones and response pathways

types & response pathways

hydrophillic —>receptors on plasma membrane trigger response

• directly into blood stream; PM receptor initiates response via signal transduction, the receptor protein is right at the walls of the target cell which results in either cytoplamic response or gene regulation to cytoplasmic response

hydrophobic —> receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus

• transport protein carried through blood which combined with the hormone from the secretory cell in blood, the horrmone w/ transport proteini meets receptor in cell triggers cellular response (usually gene expression) and then to cytoplasmic response

classes

• polypeptides (hydrophillic)

• sterroids (hydrophobic/lipid soluble

• amines (both)

five types of signalling

a. endrocrine signalling

• diffuse: bloodstream

• target: anywhere

b. paracrine signalling

• diffuse: locally

• target: neighbor

c. autocrine signalling

• diffuse: locally

• target: self

d. synaptic signalling

• diffuse: across synapses

• target: specific tissues

e. neuroendocrine signalling

• diffuse: bloodstream

• target: anywhere

• has a neurosecretory cell which releases horrmones

endocrine glands

• pituitary gland (in brain)

• thyroid gland(in throat)

• adrenal gland (2 of them itts proximal to the kidneys (kidney bean)

• pancreas ( they are the yellow hockey stick sponge looking thing)

• ovary

• testis

how do positive and negative feedback function

negative feedback

• response reduces initial stimulus

positive feedback

• response reinforces initial stimulus

response pathways in adrenal medulla and adrenal cortex

adrenal medulla (neuroendocrine)

• physicaal threat/exercise/cold exposurer

• stress in hypothalamus results in nerve impulses to spinal cold to neuron and then to the adrenal medulla leads to…

• epinephrrine + noepinephrine

• higher blood pressure, heart rate, breathing, metabolic late

adrenal cortex (endocrine)

• hypothalamus

• anterior pituitary releases horrmones

• hormones circulate in blood stream

• adrenal cortex leads to cortocosteroids

  • mineralocorticoids

    • higher blood volume and pressure

  • glucocorticoids

    • higher blood glucose

factors that plants must sense and respond to and what the classic five to refer to

plants senses

• light

• heat

• graviity

• wounding/infection

• wind

• internal chemical signalling (hormones)

• drought or flooding

• time

plants use hormones to coordinate growth, development, and environmental responses

• however, plants have no circulatory system

• signal transduction pathways alter functions of plants similar to animals

plant growth regulator (classic five)

• auxins

• cytokinins

• gibberellins

• abscisic acid

• ethylene

phytochrome response pathway

1. reception of sunlight acts as a signal which is detected by the phytochrome receptor

2. activates 2 signal transduction pathways

• pathway 1

  • phytochrome produces cGMP which increases the cytosolic level of Ca2+ which activates the specific protein kinase 1

  • cGMP acts as a second messenger which activates the specific protein kinases 1
    

• pathway 2 (calcium)

  • activated phytochrome makes calcium channels in the cell membrane open increasing cytosolic calcium

  • cytosolic calcium results in the specific protein kinase 2 activating

3. response

• protein kinases move into the nucleus leading to combining with transcription factors to perform expression

• This creates proteins that function in De-etiolation response (leaves expanding, roots elongating, stem elongation slows)

variation in mechanisms of reproduction

• sexual (fusion of two gametes)

  • isogamous (same size)

  • anisogamous (different sizes)

    • dioecous —seperate male and female organisms

    • hermaphroditic —same organisms makes male and female gametes

    • some other combination! — flowering plants can display all kinds of combinations

• asexual (no fusion of gametes)

  • fission — separate male and female organisms

  • parthenogenesis — development of embryo from one gamete

  • budding — new individual buds off parent organism

angiosperms & animals similarities and differences

similarities

• both primarily reprooduce via sexual reproduction

• primarily possses anisogamous gametes

differences

• animials segregate ssexes into seperate organisms (dioecy)

• plants are mostly hermaphroditic

  ^(there are exceptions to the rules above)

two ways that fertilization can occur (and relationship to environment)

• Internal fertilization

  • common across land animals

  • typically requires complex and compatible reproductive structures

• external fertilization

  • most common in fish and some amphibians

  • tend to produce more ggametes

conception in humans? fertile window?

ovulationo is the release of a mature oocyte

oocyte when fertilized by sperm results in conception

fertiile window: 4 days before ovulation and ends 24 hours before

hormones & phases in menstrual cycle

• follicular phase

  • stimulate ovarian follicles

• OVULATION (transition)

• luteal phase

  • progesterone increases and suppresses follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone
    
    

• hormones involved

  • hypothalamus (GnRH)

  • anterior pituitary

  • follicle-stimulating hormone

  • luteinizing hormone

  • estrogen —> antidepressant effect—>maybe decrease triggers plus

• uterine cycle

  • menses — lining expels if no implantation of the zygote

  • proliferative —estrogen causes lining to thicken

  • secretory —progesterone makes lining receptive to blastocyst

how to check home pregnancy

home pregnancy checks the presence of a hormone in urine which is produced by the placenta once the fertilized egg implants in the uterus

anatomy of a plant

fertilization in flowering plants and adaptations that limit or prevent self fertilizaitono

• self-fertilizaiton (autogamy: obligately pollinate themselves)

• pollination by wind or water (abiotic)

• pollination by insects or animals (biotic)

preventing self fertilization

• dioecy (flowers or whole organisms):separation of sexes

• herkogamy: anatomical adaptation that prevent anther and stigma from touching

• dichogamy: male and female gametes arernt produced at the same time

• heterostyly: different flower morphs in a population that can only mate with the opposite morph

• self incompatibility: rejecting its own pollen

3 types of fruits and flowers that produce them

simple fruit

• pea flower

aggregate fruit

• raspberry flowerr

multiple fruit

• pineapple inflorescence

accessory fruit

• apple flower

differences between monocots and leudicots

monocots v eudicot

seed: 1 cotyledon 2 cotyledon

flower: petal in 3s 4/5 petals

leaf: narrow/parallel net like veins and oval shape