Exam Study Guide Flashcards: Chapters 1, 2, and 3

Hypothesis

A proposed, testable explanation for a narrow set of observations or phenomena within the scientific method.

Theory

A broad, well-substantiated explanation of natural phenomena backed by a large body of evidence and repeated testing.

Control Group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment and serves as a baseline for comparison.

Experimental Group

The group in an experiment that receives the specific treatment or variable being tested.

Anatomy

The study of the structure and organization of body parts.

Microscopic Anatomy

A subfield of anatomy that studies structures requiring magnification, such as cells and tissues.

Macroscopic Anatomy

A subfield of anatomy, also called gross anatomy, that studies visible body structures without magnification.

Physiology

The study of the functions and biological processes of living organisms and their body parts.

Metabolism

The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism.

Anabolism

Metabolic processes that builds complex molecules from simpler ones, requiring energy input.

Catabolism

Metabolic pathways that break down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy.

Cell

The basic structural and functional unit of living organisms.

Tissue

A group of similar specialized cells working together to perform a specific function.

Organ

A structure composed of two or more tissue types that performs specific physiological functions.

Organ System

A group of organs that collaborate to carry out complex body functions.

Anatomical Position

Standard body stance where the body stands upright, facing forward, with feet flat, arms at sides, and palms facing forward.

Midsagittal Plane

A vertical plane passing through the midline that divides the body into equal left and right halves.

Coronal Plane

A vertical plane dividing the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) sections.

Transverse Plane

A horizontal plane dividing the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.

Oblique Plane

A plane passing through the body at an angle that is not perpendicular or parallel to standard planes.

Superior / Inferior

closer to the head or above; closer to the feet or below.

Anterior / Posterior

toward the front of the body; toward the back of the body.

Medial / Lateral

closer to the midline of the body / farther away from the midline.

Ipsilateral / Contralateral

structures located on the same side of the body; refers to structures on opposite sides.

Deep / Superficial

farther internal from the body surface; closer to the body surface.

Proximal / Distal

closer to the point of origin or attachment/farther from the point of attachment.

Serous Membrane

A double-layered membrane lining closed body cavities that secretes fluid to reduce friction between organs.

Parietal Layer

The outer portion of a serous membrane that lines the cavity wall.

Visceral Layer

The inner portion of a serous membrane that directly covers internal organs.

Homeostasis

The maintenance of a relatively stable, balanced internal environment despite external changes.

Primary Regulators of Homeostasis

The nervous system and the endocrine system.

Negative Feedback Control

A homeostatic mechanism that counteracts the change happening to restore equilibrium

Positive Feedback Control

Amplifies a change physiologically until a climactic event occurs.

Set Point

baseline level that a system, machine, or living body tries to maintain

Atom

The basic unit of matter

Proton

A positively charged subatomic particle located in the atomic nucleus.

Electron

A negatively charged subatomic particle that orbits the nucleus in electron shells.

Neutron

An uncharged subatomic particle present inside the atomic nucleus.

Isotope

Atoms of the same element that share the same number of protons but differ in neutron count.

Ion

An atom or molecule with an electrical charge due to gaining or losing electrons.

Cation

A positively charged ion formed by losing electrons.

Anion

A negatively charged ion formed by gaining electrons.

Electrolyte

A substance that dissociates into free ions in solution and can conduct electrical currents.

Essential Element Chemical Symbols

Hydrogen ($\text{H}$), Carbon ($\text{C}$), Nitrogen ($\text{N}$), Oxygen ($\text{O}$), Sodium ($\text{Na}$), Phosphorus ($\text{P}$), Chlorine ($\text{Cl}$), Potassium ($\text{K}$), Calcium ($\text{Ca}$).

Ionic Bond

a strong chemical link formed when one atom completely gives away one or more electrons to another atom

Covalent Bond

A strong chemical bond formed when atoms share electron pairs.

Hydrogen Bond

A weak attraction between a slightly positive hydrogen atom and a strongly electronegative atom.

Van der Waals Forces

Weak, temporary attractions between molecules due to temporary electron flow to one side; making the molecule positive for a split second = a dipole!

Hydrophobic

Nonpolar property describing substances that repel water and fail to dissolve in it.

Hydrophilic

Polar or ionic property describing substances that readily interact with or dissolve in water.

Amphipathic

A molecule having both hydrophilic (polar) and hydrophobic (nonpolar) regions.

Solvent / Solute / Solution

a liquid that dissolves something / a molecule that dissolves in the mixture (usually a salt) / mixture of both creates ____

Catalyst

A substance that speeds up a chemical reaction rate without being consumed in the reaction.

pH Scale

A scale from $0$ to $14$ measuring relative hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.

Acid / Base

releases hydrogen ions and lowers pH below $7$; accepts hydrogen ions and raises pH above $7$.

Buffer

A chemical system that stabilizes pH by binding or releasing hydrogen ions during experimentation

Expected Blood pH

$7.35 - 7.45$ (neutral pH is $7$).

Monomer / Polymer

a repeating single building block unit; a long chain of linked monomers.

Phospholipid Bilayer

A double layer of phospholipids with hydrophilic heads facing outward and hydrophobic fatty acid tails facing inward.

Triglycerides

Lipids consisting of a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid tails, used for long-term energy storage.

Monosaccharide / Polysaccharide

single simple sugars (e.g., glucose); complex chains of sugars (e.g., glycogen).

Nucleotide

The monomer of nucleic acids, consisting of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base.

DNA Base Pairing Rules

Adenine pairs with Thymine ($\text{A-T}$) and Cytosine pairs with Guanine ($\text{C-G}$). In RNA, Uracil replaces Thymine ($\text{A-U}$).

First Law of Thermodynamics

Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed from one form to another.

Second Law of Thermodynamics

Energy transfers increase overall universe entropy (disorder), and some usable energy is lost as thermal energy (heat).

Kinetic Energy

The energy of motion possessed by moving objects or particles.

Potential Energy

Stored energy possessed by matter due to its chemical bonds, position, or structure.

Free Energy

chemical energy available to perform biological work within a cell.

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)

The primary short-term energy currency of cells, storing convertible energy in high-energy phosphate bonds.

Activation Energy ($E_A$)

The minimum energy input required to destabilize bonds and initiate a chemical reaction.

Substrate