biol320-lab 7

what are the steps of respiration?

pulmonary ventilation, external respiration, transport of respiratory gases, and internal respiration

the movement of air into (inspiration) and out of (expiration) the lungs so that the gases in the lung are constantly refreshed with infusions of new air and effusions of old air (respiratory system does this)

pulmonary ventilation

carbon dioxide diffuses to the lungs from the blood, and oxygen diffuses to the blood from the lungs (also occurs in the respiratory system)

external respiration

accomplished using the blood of the cardiovascular system. carbon dioxide is transported from the cells of body tissues to the lungs, and oxygen is transported from the lungs to the cells of body tissues

transport of respiratory gases

occurs as oxygen diffuses from blood to the cells of the body, and carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells of the body to the blood (this is more of a function of blood/the cardiovascular system)

internal respiration

a small portion of the superior nasal cavity is lined with what? this contains what?

olfactory mucosa epithelium containing the receptors for smell

the lower respiratory system consists of the larynx?

larynx and the structures inferior to it

what is the rest of the nasal cavity lined with?

respiratory mucosa composed of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium with goblet cells and seromucous nasal glands

what secretes antibiotic defensins to assist in killing microbial invaders

respiratory mucosa epithelial cells

what sweeps the contaminated mucus toward the throat to be swallowed and digested

cilia of the nasal cavity

what stimulates the plexuses of the capillaries to engorge with blood allowing for greater heat transfer

cold inspired air

what increases the surface area and helps create turbulence which deflects non-gaseous particles onto the mucus coatings

nasal conchae

inspired air is warmed, an in the process, cools the conchae so that on expiration the cooled conchae causes?

moisture to precipitate out and heat to be exchanged into the conchae to warm them.

where are the paranasal sinuses located in?

frontal, sphenoid, maxillary, and ethmoid bones

what lightens the skull but is prone to inflammation due to infection or allergies

paranasal sinuses

what causes excessive mucus production leading to congestion and postnasal drip

inflammation of the nasal mucosa

what moves superiorly to block off the nasopharynx and the epiglottis flaps over the larynx to keep food out of the nasal cavity and lungs

muscular soft palate and uvula

this tonsil of the nasopharynx contains lymphatic tissue that traps and destroys pathogens

pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)

what connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx so that air in the middle ear can match pressure with atmospheric air which is important for sound conduction and proper hearing

pharyngotympanic tubes

what receives both food and air and has a more protective stratified squamous epithelium

oropharynx and laryngopharynx

site of external respiration (where gas is exchanged) and is made up of microscopic alveoli (main site of exchange), alveolar ducts, and respiratory bronchioles

respiratory zone

consists of all tubes transporting air from the nose to the respiratory bronchioles

conducting zone

what houses the vocal folds for voice production

larynx

what prominence of the thyroid cartilage can be seen external to the body as the Adam’s apple and is more prominent in males than females because the thyroid cartilage is stimulated by androgens during male puberty to grow larger

laryngeal prominence

what anchors the vocal folds; anything other an air entering the larynx will generate a cough reflex to expel it

arytenoid cartilages

the vocal folds and the opening between them are?

glottis

the inflammation of the vocal folds causing them to swell and vibrate incorrectly

laryngitis

the abdominal muscles contract, and the glottis closes, to increase the intra-abdominal pressure to help empty the rectum

valsalva maneuver

in terms of thoracic pressure, venous return, vagal tone, and heart rate what happens during inhalation?

thoracic pressure and vagal tone decreases
venous return and heart rate increases

in terms of thoracic pressure, venous return, vagal tone, and heart rate what happens during exhalation?

venous return and heart rate decreases
thoracic pressure and vagal tone increases

boyle’s law?

at a constant temperature, the pressure of a gas varies inversely with its volume

the muscles of expiration? diaphragm, ribs and sternum, chest cavity, lungs

diaphragm relaxes, ribs and sternum depress: chest cavity and lungs contract

the muscles of inspiration? diaphragm, ribs and sternum, chest cavity, lungs

diaphragm contracts, ribs and sternum expand: chest cavity and lungs expand

what are the muscles of expiration?

internal intercostals, diaphragm, transverse abdominis, internal oblique, rectus abdominis, external oblique

what are the muscles of inspiration?

sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, external intercostals, diaphragm

composed of mucosa (with pseudostratified columnar ciliated epithelium containing goblet cells which produces and moves mucus up out of lungs), a submucosa (with seromucous glands), and adventitia (outermost connective tissue sheath)

trachea

this lies between the esophagus and trachea and contraction of this aids in rapid movement of air and mucus out of the lungs and trachea during coughing

trachealis muscle

each lobe of the lung is fed by?

one secondary (lobar) bronchus (3 on the right and 2 on the left)

cluster of alveoli coming off an alveolar duct

alveolar sac

densely covered with pulmonary capillaries

alveoli

amount of gas reaching the alveoli is called?
the blood flow in the pulmonary capillaries?
These two must be close (coupling) so that gas exchange is done most efficiently

ventilation
perfusion

decreases surface tension in the alveoli, keeps the alveoli open and prevent collapse? it is produced by what type of cells in a detergent-like complex of proteins and lipids that disrupts the cohesiveness of water molecules attracting to each other in the film covering the alveoli

pulmonary surfacant; type II alveolar cells

the entire bronchial tree, including the alveoli, is surrounded by what fibers?

fine elastic fibers

the lungs take up the thoracic cavity except for the ______ which is where the heart, great vessels, esophagus, bronchi, and other organs are at

mediastinum

each lung is surrounded independently by

serous parietal (more superficial) and visceral (deep and lies directly on lungs)

what is between the two pleural membranes in a space filled membrane called?

pleural fluid (lubricant secretion)

inflammation of the pleura is termed what and is a result of what (inflammation primarily of the alveoli in the lung)

pleurisy; pneumonia

left lung is molded to accommodate in the heart in a feature called the?

cardiac notch

what serves each bronchopulmonary segment

tertiary bronchi plus an independent artery and vein

the stretchiness of the lungs is clinically termed

lung compliance

the lungs also play a key role in that pathway which helps regulate blood pressure

renin angiotensin aldosterone pathway

the pressure in the alveoli changes as we breathe to move gases between the lungs and blood and between the lungs and the atmosphere

intrapulmonary pressure

pressure in the pleural space or cavity (intrapleural pressure) is always slightly less than what pressure? why?

intrapulmonary pressure
the difference helps keep the lungs from ever collapsing and thus keeps the bronchial tree always open, the pressure difference is generated and maintained because pleural fluid is constantly being pumped out of the pleural cavity

the difference between the intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures is called? if this small difference is lost, then the lung will collapse which is called?

transpulmonary pressure
atelectasis

gas flow decreases or increases as resistance increases and a smaller diameter tube creates a larger resistance to flow

decreases

what nervous system regulates resistance by changing the diameter of the airway in the medium-sized bronchi where the effect has the largest impact

autonomic

most common treatment for acute asthma attacks as it is an agonist for beta adrenergic receptors of the sympathetic nervous system that stimulate dilation of the bronchioles

albuterol

does resistance increase or decrease when mucous, infectious materials, or tumors impede the bronchial tree

increase

the volume of gas expands with warming, therefore, the air volume expired from the lungs will be slightly less or more than that inspired

more

BTPS factor

body temp, atmospheric pressure, saturated with water vapor

in normal ventilation, the breathing frequency (f) is approximately ___ respiratory cycles per minute which varies with the level of activity

15

amount of air expelled with each normal resting breath

tidal volume (Vt or TV)

amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled after a normal tidal inspiration

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled after a normal tidal expiration

expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

amount of air remaining in the lungs after a maximum forced expiration; cannot be measured by spirometry as the volunteer is unable to exhale any further (because that volume stays in the lungs, it cannot create a pressure difference across the membrane of pneumotachometer we are using); prevents lung collapse and helps keep the alveoli open; most is in the alveoli since alveoli make up the vast majority of the lung

residual volume (RV)

when some of the residual volume is in the bronchial tree it is called? why?

dead space
because this air is not actively contributing to gas exchange when air is not being moved for ventilation (about 150ml)

maximum amount of air contained in the lungs after a maximum inspiration

total lung capacity (TLC)

max amount of air that can be expired after a max inspiration (inspiring as deeply as possible)

vital capacity (VC)

max amount of air that can be inspired after a normal tidal expiration

inspiratory capacity (IC)

max amount of air that can be expired after a normal tidal inspiration

expiratory capacity (EC)

volume of air remaining in the lungs after a normal tidal expiration

functional (forced) residual capacity (FRC)

the maximum amount of air a person can forcibly exhale from their lungs after taking the deepest breath possible,

forced vital capacity (FVC)

FEV1 is the

volume of air expired during the first second of the expiration when performing the forced vital capacity; usually presented in a percentage of the forced vital capacity (FEV1/FVC)

increasing partial pressures of carbon dioxide weakening the hemoglobin-oxygen bond called?

bohr effect

bicarbonate ions exits the erythrocytes as

chloride ions enter the RBCs by facilitated diffusion to maintain a charge balance across the RBC membrane in a process called the chloride shift

haldane effect: in the lungs, when carbon dioxide releases, O2 binding increases or decreases?

O2 binding increases

what contains oxygen at partial pressures, higher than what we are normally exposed to in the atmosphere and can thus be used to drive oxygen into the blood of patients deficient in oxygen such as those suffering from carbon monoxide poisoning

hyperbaric oxygen

dalton’s law of partial pressures states that

the total pressure exerted by a mix of gases will equal the sum of the partial pressures exerted independently by each of the gases in the mix

henry’s law?

when gas is in contact with a liquid, the gas will dissolve into the liquid in proportion to its partial pressure, and the larger concentration of this independent gas in the mix of gases in the gas pahse, the greater and more rapidly that independent gas will go into the solution in the liquid.

poor oxygen delivery due to erythrocytes that contain too little or abnormal hb or from too few erythrocytes

anemic hypoxia

results from blocked or impaired blood circulation

ischemic hypoxia

when adequate oxygen is delivered but the body cells are unable to use it such as when metabolic poisons (cyanide) are administered

histotoxic hypoxia

medullary respiratory centers of the medulla oblongata that set the rhythm are

ventral respiratory group and dorsal respiratory group

rhythm generating and integration center for breathing which to initiate inspiration, sends action potentials down the phrenic nerve (to the diaphragm) and intercostal nerves (to external intercostals)

ventral respiratory group

integration center for signals from peripheral stretch receptors (such as in lungs) and chemoreceptors (aortic arch or brain stem) that alters breathing rate as it responds by signaling to the other respiratory group

dorsal respiratory group

clinical term for normal breathing rate (15 breaths per min)

eupnea

if this group is completely suppressed (overdose of alcohol or morphine) respiration will completely stop

ventral respiratory group

by the dorsal communicating with the ventral, the ______ respiratory center modifies and fine-tunes breathing patterns and specifically smooths the alternating transitions between inspiration and expiration; also signals the ventral group to fine-tune breathing for exercise, sleep, or speech

pontine respiratory center

the rate of respiration is set by how long the ____ center is active or how quickly it is inhibited

inspiratory

clinical term for high carbon dioxide levels in blood

hypercapnia

increase in breathing rate and depth based on metabolic needs (normal increase)

hyperpnea

what causes cerebral blood vessels to constrict thus decreasing perfusion and increasing ischemia to the brain resulting in dizziness or fainting

hypocapnia and alkalosis

what is low blood carbon dioxide

hypocapnia

high blood pH

alkalosis

when carbon dioxide levels are low, the reciprocals of the mechanisms above inhibit respiration to become slow and shallow and might even stop until carbon dioxide levels rise enough to stimulate the need to breathe again

apnea (breathing cessation)

do H+ cross the blood brain barrier, it not, how?

no, so chemoreceptors respond to locally produced H+ and its peripheral chemoreceptors that respond to blood pH to increase breathing depth and rate when H+ increase (pH goes down) in the blood

what is inhibited in the dorsal respiratory group?

peripheral stretch receptors (lungs) and irritant receptors (lungs, trachea)

what is stimulated in the dorsal respiratory group?

chemoreceptors (aortic arch, brainstem)

what is stimulated in the ventral respiratory group?

muscle stimulation (external intercostals, diaphragm)

what is mixed in the pontine respiratory group?

higher brain centers (voluntary breathing control)