AP Exam 3

What’s function of respiratory system for

• Oxygen intake

• CO2 removal

• pH regulation

• Voice production

• Protection + Filtration

(5)

1. Lungs take o2 from inhaled air to blood and then to tissues

2. Lungs remove CO2 waste from cells

3. Resp system mantain blood pH

4. Larynx creates sound by passing air over vocal cords

5. MALT, mucus and cilia trap and destroy debris/pathogens

What are the 2 components of the respiratory system?

1. Conducting division

2. Respiratory division

What are the functions of the conducting division of resp system? (2)

1. Provides passageway for air to move

2. warms, humidifies, and cleanses air

What’s the function of the respiratory division of the resp system?

Site of gas exchange between lungs and blood

What division is the mouth part of in resp system?

Mouth is primarily an organ of the ____ system.

What is the mouth’s role in respiration?

Mouth is especially important when breathing under ____.

1. Conducting division

2. Digestive system

3. Acts with nose as a conduit for air entry/exit

4. Important when breathing under extertion.

Nares (Nostrils), Bridge, and Root are portions of which division?

Conducting division

Nares are the _____ to the nose and contain ____, and filter _____ ____.

Bridge connects ____ to rest of ____.

Root: Region located between the _____.

Nares/Nostrils = openings to nose, contain hair and filter large particles.

Bridge connects root to rest of nose.

Root is located between the eyebrows.

Nasal Vestibulate, Nasal setpum, S/M/I conchae, and internal nares/choanae, are all portions of the

Internal structures of nose in conducting division

Nasal vestibe, just inside the _____ and leads to the ____ ____.

Nasal septum, divides ____ ____ into ___ and ___ sides.

Superior, middle and inferior conchae - Three pairs of ___-____ bones extending ______ from the nasal septum.

Internal nares (Chonae) - Opening from the ____ ____ into the _____.

Vestibulue- Inside nostrils, leads to nasal cavity

Nasal septum- Divides nasal cavity to L/R sides

Superior, Middle, and Inferior Conchae: 3 pairs of C-shape bones extends laterally from nasal septum

What are Meatuses?

What’s the function of the Eustachian tube opening?

Meatuses: Passageway around conchae allowing air flow

Eustachian tube opening: Drains fluid from middle ear

Where is Olofactory epithielium located, lining, and containing what?

Tissue at top of nasal cavity lining superior nasal conchae containing olofactory cells

Nasopharynx

• It’s a ____ for ____ only

• ____ lie in ____ wall.

Nasopharynx is a conduit for air only

Nasopharynx has adenoids liying on posterior wall

Oropharynx

• Conduit for ____ and ____

• Has ____ found on its border.

Oropharynx = conduit for digestion/respiration

Has tonxils found on its border

Laryngopharynx

• Conduit for ___ and ____.

• Opens into ____ and ____.

Laryngopharynx is a conduit for air + food and opens into larynx and esophagus

Larynx is part of which resp division?

Conducting divison

Larynx directs ____ into ____, and food into _____.

• What prevents food and drinks from entering trachea?

• Large pieces of cartilage keep the larynx from ______.

1. Larynx directs air into trachea and food into esophagus, and epiglottis prevents food/drinks from entering trachea.

2. Large pieces of certilage keep larynx from collapsing.

Glottis is part of which division?

Conducting division

Glottis

• Glottis is the vocal apparatus of the _____.

• Glottis is located inferior to the _____.

1. Glottis is vocal apparatus of larynx.

2. Glottis is located inferior to the epiglottis.

What happens when you get a lump in your throat?

• Stressors (physical and emotional) trigger the ____.

• When ___ or ___ kicks in, glottis is held open to ____ _____ intake.

• As this occurs, ____ drain from ____ duct, ____ cavity, and _____ to trigger ____ reflex.

• Glottis usually closes during _____, but _____ while ____ ____ system is holding it open feels like a ____ in the throat.

1. Stressors trigger sympathetic nervous system

2. When Fight/Flight kicks in, Glottis held open to improve oxygen intake.

3. As this occurs, tears drain from lacrimal duct, nasal cavity, and throat to trigger swallow reflex.

4. Glottis usually closes during swallowing, but swallowing while SNS is holding it open feels like lump in the throat.

Trachea is part of the _____ division

Conducting

Trachea

• Trachea extends from ____ to its division into ____ and ____ _______.

• Trachea contains _____ cartilage (called tracheal cartilages or _____ _____) between fiberous tissue ligaments

• The ______ is a ridge of cartilage at the point where the ______ ______ that senses….

• Cilitated cells on interior form the ______ ______.

1. Trachea extends from larynx to its division into L/R bronchi

2. Trachea contains hyaline cartilage (tracheal cartilage/tracheal rings) between fiberous tissue ligaments

3. Carina is a ridge of cartilage at point where bronchi branches that senses liquid substances and triggers violent coughing to expel them

4. Ciliated cells on interior form the mucocilary escalator.

Bronchial tree is part of which division?

Conducting division

Bronchi (singular = bronchus) supported by cartilage, and interior contains ____ _____ cells.

Bronchi (single bronchus) supported by cartilage and interior contains ciliated mucous cells.

Bronchiles lack _____, but have ____ ____ instead, and lack _____ but still have ciliated cells.

Bronchioles lack cartilage, have SM instead, and lack mucous but still have cilaited cells.

What are the branches of the R/L Primary bronchi? (4)

Primary bronchi (R/L) —> Secondary lobar bronchi —> tertiary bronchi —> primary bronchioles —> terminal bronchioles

How is conducting different from resp division?

Conducting moves air in/out

What’s diff between trachea and bronchi?

Trachea is main pathway to get to lungs and bronchi are branches coming off it to get to lungs

Respiratory broncholes and Alveolar sacs are part of what division?

Respiratory division

What are Respiratory bronchioles the final division of, and where do they end?

Alveolar ducts are short conduits of mainly what?

Alveolar sacs are grape like clusters of individual ____ that opened from ____ ducts.

All of the Respiratory bronchioles, Alveolar ducts, and Alveolar sacs are very ____.

Resp broncholes = final division of bronchioles ending at alveoli

Alveolar ducts are short conduits of mainly CT

Alveolar sacs are grape like clusters of individual alveoli that opened from alveolar ducts

Resp Bronchioles, Alevolar ducts, and Alevolar sacs are all very elastic.

Alveoli are part of which division?

Respiratory division

Gas exchange occurs in the ____.

Alveoli have ____ walls with a large ____.

Alveoli provide contact between ____ air and ____ in ____ capillaries around alveolar walls.

Collectively, the alveoli have a surface area of ____, the size of a…

1. Gas exchange in alveoli

2. Alveoli have thin walls, large lumen

3. Alveoli provide contact between inhaled air + blood in pulmonary capillaries around alveolar walls

4. Collectively, alveoli surface area = 70m², size of singles tennis court

Alveolar cells are structures of the…

Respiratory division

_____ _____ is the site of gas exchange containing squamous cells, basement membrane and capillaries

Respiratory membrane

Type I Alveolar cells are the most _____ alveolar cell type.

____-cells connected to a thin basement membrane

Type 1 = most common alveolar cell

Squamous cells connected to thin basement membrane

Type II Alveolar cells

____-cells aka ____ cells, that make and secrete _____.

_____ reduces ____ ____ between water lining inner alveoli surface

Type II Alveolar cells

Cubodial cells aka septal cells that make/secrete surfactant

Surfactant reduces surface tension between water lining inner alveoli surface

Type III Alveolar cells

Aka _____ _____ or ____ cells; or resident aleveolar ____ cells

These Type III cells scavenge _____ and other ____.

Type III alveolar cells aka alveolar macrophages or dust cells, the resident aleveolar immune cells

Scavaenge microorganisms and other particles

What’s IRDS stand for, and what does it involve

Infant Resp distress syndrome, aka SDD, surfactant deficency syndrome

• Surfactants released by Type II cells  break H-bonds between H2O molecules making it easier to expand our lungs

What are causes of IRDS? (1)

What’s it common in?

1. Inadequate surfactant, common in pre-term babies

Symptoms of IRDS? (3)

Can it be fatal?

1. Difficulty breathing, fast HR, cyanosis

2. can be fatal

Glucocorticoids to stimulate fetal surfactant production, or O2 via CPAP are treatments for

IRDS

Lungs are part of which division?

Resp division

Lungs

• Occupy most of the ____ cavity, surrounded by ___ membrane.

• How many lobes do Right lung, and left lung have?

• What do the lobes divide into? What does this further divide into?

Lungs

• occupy most of thoracic cavity, surrounded by pleural membrane

• Right lung has 3 lobes, left lung has 2 lobes

• Lobes divide into bronchopulmonary segments, that further divide into pulmonary lobules

What’s the function of the root of the lung, and what does it contain?

What’s the hilum?

Root connects lung to mediastinum and contains arteries, veins, bronchi and nerves. 

Hilum is where arteries,veins, bronchi and nerves enter/leave lungs.

Lung pleura is part of what division

Resp division

Each lung is surrounded by a ____ membrane, with what 2 layers?

Lung has pleural membrane with visceral pleura (tight around lung) and parietal pleura around inner wall of thoracic cavity.

Where’s pleural cavity located, and what does it contain and secrete?

Space between visceral/parietal pleura of pleural membrane with mesothelial cells secreting pleural fluid (lubrication + barrier)

Pleurisy is inflammation of the

Pleura of lungs

What are causes of Pleurisy? (2)

What’s symptom of Pleurisy?

What’s treatment

Pleurisy causes

• Infection + certain meds

• Symptoms = sharp CP

• Treatment: meds, anti-IF, rest.

For Pulmonary blood flow in the lungs, what’s the pathway for Deoxygenated blood, and Oxygenated blood?

Deoxygenated blood —> Pulm trunk on heart —> pulm arteries —> lobar arteries —> capillary beds around alveoli —> oxygenated blood now goes to venules —> small veins —> pulm veins back to heart

What’s equation for Flow?

If airways become too narrow, what occurs to flow and oxygen?

Too narrow = increased pressure/resistance, and decreased oxygen

What are the only principle muscles of respiration?

Diaphram and internal/external intercoastals

What’s muscles for Exhalation/Expiration? (3)

What do they do during expiration?

1. Internal intercostals - Depresses the ribs

2. Diaphram: Presses up on lungs

3. Abdominal muscles help with compression

= Expiration!

What are the muscles of inspiration (5), and what do they do during inspiration/Inhalation?

1. Sternocliedomastoid - Elevates sternum

2. Scalenes: Anterior/Middle lift Rib 1, and Posterior laterally flexes neck and lifts Rib 2

3. External intercostal: Elevates ribs

4. Diaphram: Pulls down on lungs

5. Pec major: Helps with inhalation

Respiration: The harder we work to inhale, the more ____ ____ we recruit.

Exhalation is mostly a _____ ____ of muscles used for ____, but ____ ____ will use ____ ____.

1. Respiration: Harder we work to inhale, more accessory muscles we recruit.

2. Exhalation is mostly passive relaxation of muscles used for inhalation, but forceful exhalation will use additional muscles.

Describe volume, pressure, and air movement during breathing in, and breathing out.

Breathing in (Inhalation) : Lungs expand (Volume up), Pressure down, air goes in.

Breathing out (Exhalation): Lungs contract( Pressure increases), air is forced out.

Describe each in a sentence

• ATM pressure

• Transpulm pressure

• Intrapleural pressure

• Intrapulm/Intra-alveolar pressure

1. Pressure in ATM around body

2. TP pressure = Difference between pressures in lungs and intrapleural pressure

3. IP pressure = Pressure in space between visceral and parietal pleura

4. Intrapulm/IA pressure = Pressure in alveoli

What’s equation for Boyles Law

P1V1=P2V2

What are determinants of Gas pressure? (determinants of pressure)

1. # of Gas particles: If # of gas particles (+) = (+) pressure

2. Temperature: If temp (+) = (+) pressure

3. Volume of space: If volume decreases = (+) pressure

Pnuemothorax: Collapsed lung

• Due to injury/illness, ___, ____, or ____ buildup in pleural space where if intrapleural pressure exceeds ______ pressure, lung collapses.

• A pneumothorax due to blood is called a ________.

• What’s treatment? (2)

Pnuemothorax

• Due to injury/illness, air, blood, or fluid biuldup in pleural space where if intrapleural > intrapulmonary pressure, lung collapses.

• Pnuemothorax due to blood is called Hemopnuemothorax.

• Treatment = Needle apiration or chest tube to allow air and blood to drain

What’s process of ventilation for rsting breathing? (5)

1. Prior to inspiration, ATM pressure = Intrapulm pressure

2. During inhalation, lungs expand and intrapulm pressure drops below ATM pressure and air goes in

3. Lungs are full and pressure returns to equalibrium

4. On exhalation, volume decreases, intrapulmonary pressure increases above ATM pressure and air leaves lung

5. Lungs are empty and pressure equalizes

Nonbreathing Air movements

• What’s purpose of coughing and sneezing?

• What does a yawn result from?

• What’s a hiccup and what does it cause?

• What’s Laughing/Crying?

• What’s valsava manuever?

1. Cough/Sneeze: resp system tries to clear irritants from airways

2. Yawn: Results from deepest possible breath

3. Hiccup: Diaphram spasm causing burst of air through vocal cords

4. Laugh/cry: Emotional state drives ventilation pattern

5. Valsava: Exhaling against closed airway

Ventilatory volumes and capacities

What are the following defintiinos, and for TV, IRV, and ERV, and RV, what’s the usual volumes

1. TV

2. IRV

3. ERV

4. RV

5. IC

6. FRC

7. VC

1. TV(tidal volume) = Volume inhale/exhale in normal breath, normally 500ml

2. IRV(insp reserve volume) = # of additional air that can be inhaled in addition to the TV, 2100-3200ml

3. ERV(exp reserve volume) = # of air that can be force exhaled, after exhaling TV (1000-1200ml)

4. RV(residual vol) = Air left after a completed ERV (1200ml is lowest lung possible with open alveoli)

5. IC (inspiratory capacity) = TV + IRV

6. FRC (funct. residual capacity) = RV + ERV (amount left after a normal exhalation)

7. VC: Vital capcity: TV + IRV + ERV : amount a person can physically move in and out of their lungs

What do flow rates provide info about?

Resistance of airways

What’s PEF?

FEV?

FVC?

PEF = Peak expiratory flow rate

FEV = Forced expiratory volume (volume that can be forcefully exhaled within a certain time frame)

FVC = forced vital capacity (similar to vital capcity, but measured by exaling as quickly as possible)

What’s Atelectasis?

What determines if Atelectasis is obstructive or nonobstructive?

What’s a general cause of Atelectasis?

What’s treatment? (3)

Collapsed lung from collapsed alveoli

• Obstructive Atelectasis if blocked airway, and Nonobstructive if occuring from pressure outside lung

• General cause is General anaesthia as a common cause

• Treatment: Chest PT, Surgery if obstructive, CPAP

What’s Dalton’s law of partial pressures state?

What’s Partial pressure?

What’s equation of partial pressure?

Total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to sum of partial pressures of component gasses present

Partial pressure represents the contribution of any gas in a mixture to the mixtures total pressure

Partial pressure = Total pressure x fraction of gas

What does rate of gas diffusion depend on?

What determines the amount of gas dissolved in a liquid?

Rate of gas diffusion depends on solubility coefficent of the gas

Amount of gas dissolved in a liquid = partial pressure x solubility coefficent

V/Q ratios in lungs

• For adequate gas exchange to occur, what must occur?

• What’s healthy V/Q ratio in lungs? What if it’s above, and below this ratio? (much)

Flow of air (ventilation/V) must match perfusion (flow of blood/Q)

Healthy V/Q ratio = 0.8

If V/Q > 0.8, Ventilation is higher than perfusion, and causes clots, HF, emphysema, capillary damage

If V/Q < 0.8, perfusion is higher than ventilation, and causes aspiration, blockage of bronchi, pnuemonia and asthma or COPD.

Skipped Zones of Blood Flow in lungs

What is diffusion in the lungs and tissues based on?

For the lungs (External respiration): How does O2 move?

For the lungs (External respiration)For CO2, how does it move?

Diffusion in lungs is based on gas partial pressures because fluids travel from high to low pressure areas

In lungs (External respiration): Oxygen (O₂) moves from the air into the blood because its partial pressure is higher in the air than in the blood. As O₂ enters the capillaries, the partial pressure in the blood increases.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) moves from the blood into the air because its partial pressure is higher in the blood than in the air. As CO₂ leaves the capillaries, its level in the blood decreases.

For the tissues (internal respiration)

How does O2 move?

How does CO2 move?

In tissues (Internal respiration)

Oxygen (O₂) moves from the blood —> tissues because its partial pressure is higher in the blood than in the tissues. As the blood circulates, the partial pressure of O₂ decreases.

Carbon dioxide (CO₂) moves from the tissues —> blood because its partial pressure is higher in the tissues than in the blood. As the blood circulates, the partial pressure of CO₂ increases.

skipped slide for internal and external respiration side by side

Skipped review aerobic cellular respiration

Hemoglobin transports more than __% of blood O2

• How many hemoglobin does each RBC carry?

• How many o2 molecules can each RBC carry?

1. 98% of blood O2 carried by HG

2. Each RBC has 250-300m HG molecules

3. Each RBC can carry up to 1.2B oxygen molecules

skipped CO2 transport in blood mostly except Haldane effect(got that one)

What’s the Haldane effect?

Co2 more readily binds for unoxygenated hemoglobin

skipped slide on gas exchange between blood and body tissues, ALONG WITH CHLORIDE SHIFT PORTION FOR INTERNAL RESPIRATION THATS FUCKING IMPORTANT MAKE SURE YOU GET THAT PART IN THE EXAM REVIEW WHAT THE FUCK ITS BOTH EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL RESPIRATION FUCK

What range must blood pH remain in?

What occurs if it goes above 7.8, or below 6.8?

In the blood buffering system, what is Hydronium H3O and Bicarbonate (HCO3) in equilibrium with? What does this help mantain?

What do additional increases in hydronium H3O stimulate the release of?

Blood pH is mantained between 7.35 and 7.45

Over 7.8 = death

Under 6.8 = death

Blood buffering system (Hydronium H3O) and Bicarbonate (HCO3) are in EQ with Carbonic acid (H2CO3). This balance of acid and base helps mantain pH

(H2CO3 weak acid + H2O) ←- —> H3O + HCO3 (conjguate base)

Additional increases in hyodrinum stimulate more release of O2 from HG

pH regulation

What is the physiological cause of hyperventilation?

What is the general cause of hyperventilation?

Physialogical Hyperventilation: Too much CO2 expelled —> rise in blood pH —> blood vessels narrow to slow BF to brain causing LOC

General Hyperventilation: Breaths that are too fast or deep from anxiety/panic

pH regulation

What is the physialogical cause of hypoventilation?

What is the general cause of hypoventilation?

Physialogical = Rise in CO2 causes drop in blood pH —> O2 levels drop, deprives brain and tissues

General cause = Breaths are slow/shallow from illness or injury

What’s Hypoxia?

Lack of O2

What’s treatment for Hypoxia?

Supp. O2

What are 3 causes of Hypoxia?

Lung diseases, Cyanide poisoning, Heart/Brain problems

Where is partial pressure higher? Blood or body tissues?

Blood

Where is partial pressure of CO2 higher? Blood or alveoli?

Blood

What’s purpose of Chloride shift?

During Internal respiration, Tissues release CO₂, which is converted into bicarbonate in the blood. The bicarbonate leaves the red blood cell and swaps places with chloride to maintain electrical balance.

Overall control of ventilators

What are sensors, and what are 3 things they sense? (3)

What are integrators, and where are they located? (3)

What are effectors (2) and what do they control?

Sensors: Chemoreceptors, detect chem lvls in blood i.e PaCO2 (partial arterial pressure of CO2) PaO2, pH

Integrators: Resp center in brain stem, and neurons in medulla and pons

Effectors: Diapragm and intercostal muscles that control breathing.

What’s the function of the Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG) of the brainstem for ventilation?  (3)

Why don’t we need a control center for exhalation?

Controls inhalation, responds to blood CO2 and O2 levels, and impacts VRG (ventral respiratory group).

Exhalation is generally passive unless forced and doesn’t need a center unless its forced due to exercise or illness.

What’s function of Ventral Respiratory Group (VRG)? (2)

Controls forced exhalation (i.e exercise or sickness) and increases inhalation pressure because if you exhale hard you’ll likely inhale hard.

What’s function of Apnueistic center of brainstem?

Stimulates DRG (Dorsal respiratory group)

What’s function of Pnuemotaxic center?

Inhibits DRG, i.e will make sure you don’t breath while underwater.

What’s function of RTN (Retrotrapezoid nucleus) of Brain stem? (2)

Recieves input from chemoreceptors in brain and lung stretch to impact VRG

Sensitivity of ventilation to blood O2, CO2, and pH

What causes us to breath faster, for example when underwater?

• The stimuli to breath faster is due to buildup of CO2 and acid rather than O2. So when breathing underwater, it’s not the lack of O2, but rather the buildup of CO2 in blood. O2 has the lowest impact on needing to breathe, while CO2 and pH cause much greater effect on needing to breath faster.

What’s an Obstructive disorder?

Air has trouble flowing due to blockage making air resistance

What’s a restrictive disorder?

Tightness/weakness/stiffness makes it difficult to expand ribs/lungs

What are 6 ways to diagnose Obstructive and Restrictive disorders?

1. Spirometry: Spirometer with mouthpiece hooked to machine

2. Plethysomography: Patient sits in air tight box and does stuff

3. Imaging scan

4. Pulse oximeter: O2 levels in blood

5. Biopsy

6. Bronchscope: Insert scope into mouth down to bronchus

Asthma: Homeostatic imbalances

• When airways narrow = higher _____, harder to ____.

• What’s the characteristic symptom?

Asthma = narrow airways, high air resistance, hard to breathe.

• Characteristic symptom = wheezing and difficulty breathing