Psychology 101 chapter 4-6

Circadian Rhythms

Within each 24-hour period, the regular fluctuation from high to low points of certain bodily functions and behaviors. 

Activation Synthesis Hypothesis

the belief that dreams are the brain's way of making sense of random electrical signals created during REM sleep

Lucid dreams

A dream where people are aware that they are dreaming and sometimes able to direct the course of their dreams.

Hyponsis

an altered state of consciousness characterized by focused attention, deep relaxation and heightened susceptibility to suggestion. Narrowing attention to the hypnotist’s voice or repetitive stimulus

Dopamine 

A neurotransmitter that affects learning, attention, movement, reinforcement, and pleasure

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior that is acquired through experience 

Classical conditioning 

form of associative learning by which we learn to respond to a particular stimulus in the same or similar way we respond to another stimulus on the basis of pairing the two stimuli

Operant Conditioning 

The process of of learning in which the consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated

Insight learning 

that sudden “aha” moment is the flash of insight you often wait for when the solution to a problem seems to lie just outside of your grasp.

Latent learning

learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided 

Retrieval cue

Cues associated with the original learning that facilities the retrieval of memories 

Flashbulb memories

Exceptionally vivid and highly detailed ‘snapshots’ of moments or circumstances wherein you learned important or surprising pieces of news.

Law of effect

Responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened, and become more likely to occur again, whereas those that lead to discomfort are weakened and become less likely to recur.

Examples of Altered states of Consciousness

States of awareness during wakefulness that are different than the person’s usual waking state

Sleep wave patterns

ordinary wakefulness, relaxed wakefulness, stage 1 sleep, stage 2, stage 3/4, REM sleep

Alpha waves

Appearances of alpha waves in the sleep electrencephalogram indicate physiological, brief states of awakening that lie in between wakefulness and sleep.

Beta waves

high-frequency, low-amplitude brain waves that are commonly observed in an awaken state

Delta waves

long-burst brain waves very different from our waking life brain waves. Delta waves are how the brain recovers.

REM

Rapid eye movements, paralysis of large muscles, fast and irregular heart and respiration rates, increased brain-wave activity, vivid dreams 

NREM

Slow, regular respiration and heart rate, little body movements, blood pressure and brain activity at their 24-hour low points 

Freud’s parts of the dream 

He believed that understanding the latent content could provide insight into the dreamers unconscious mind and help them confront their inner conflicts and desires 

Role-playing Hypnosis Theories

Hypnosis is a social interaction
between a hypnotist and a willing individual who
assumes the role of a “good” hypnotic subject, who
follows the hypnotist’s directions. They are not faking
their responses, however

Neodissociation Hypnosis Theories

There are multiple levels of
awareness that can become “split off” or dissociated
from each other. Our consciousness is split into two
parts- one part carries out the hypnotist’s direction, the
other, the “Hidden Observer” monitors what happens

Depressants (Barbiturates, alcohol, tranquilizers, and opioids) 

Reduce the activity of the central nervous system, thereby reducing such bodily processes as heart rate and respiration rate. They produce feelings of relaxation, often a euphoric “rush” of
pleasure. They reduce anxiety, tension and can relieve pain. Overdoses of depressants can result in cessation of
breathing. They are a highly addictive class of drugs.

Stimulants (Amphetamines, caffeine, cocaine, nicotine, ecstasy)

Called “uppers” because they speed up the central nervous system.

Hallucinogens (LSD, Marijuana, Ecstasy)

Psychedelics that tangle with the way your perceptual experiences take place. Can alter you mood, cause hallucinations

Stimulus generalization 

CR evoked by stimuli that are similar to the
original CS

Stimulus discrimination 

CR not evoked by stimuli that are related but not
identical to the CS

Extinction

The process by which the association between the unconditioned stimulus and conditioned stimulus is broken.

Spontaneous recovery

The conditioned stimulus suddenly elicits an extinguished conditioned response when it is presented again after a period of time has elapsed after extinction occurs.

John B. Watson and Little Albert

Using fear to classically conditioning a child to fear a white rat through a series of experiments that paired the rat with loud, frightening noises.

Positive reinforcements

A stimulus or event that makes the response it follows more likely to occur again

Negative reinforcements

An aversive stimulus whose removal strengthens the preceding behavior and increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated

Primary reinforcer

A stimulus that is innately reinforcing because it satisfies basic biological needs or drives

Secondary reinforcer

A stimulus whose reinforcement value derives from its association with primary reinforcers

Shaping

A process of learning that involves the reinforcement
of increasingly closer approximations to the
desired response

Schedule of continuous reinforcement

A schedule for delivering reinforcement every time
a correct response is produced

Schedule of partial reinforcement (fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, or variable-interval schedule)

A schedule of delivering reinforcement in which only
a portion of responses is reinforced

Escape learning 

Learning responses that result in escape from an aversive stimulus

Avoidance learning 

Learning responses that results in avoidance of an aversive stimulus

Fixed ratio

Reinforcer is given after a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responses. Steady responses rate with low ratio; brief pause after reinforcement with very high ratio

Variable ratio

Reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses, based on an average ratio. (Constant rate without pauses)

Fixed interval

Reinforcer is given given following the first correct response after a specific period of time has elapsed (Increase in response before reinforcement, long pauses after)

Variable interval 

A reinforcer is given after the first correct responses that follows a varying time of non-reinforcement, based on an average time (stable, uniform response)

Punishments

A decrease in the frequency of a behavior caused by some kind of consequence.

Bandura’s Bo-Bo Doll experiment

Children will mimic aggressive behavior upon watching someone else show aggressive behavior

Process of memory (three stages)

Encoding, storage, retrieval

Sensory memory

The storage system that holds memory of sensory impressions for a very short time.

Short-term memory

Storage system retaining information and processing information of a max of about 30 seconds

Long term memory 

Storage system that allows you to retain information four periods of time beyond the capacity of short'-term memory.

Encoding

Converting information into a form of usable in memory 

Retrieval

Bringing to mind information stored in memory

The Hippocampus

Essential to forming memories of facts and general information (semantic memory), and life experiences (episodic memory). It is temporary storage for holding new memories- weeks or months, before they are transferred to long term memory.

Theories of forgetting

Decay theory, interference theory, retrieval theory, motivated forgetting

Measuring methods

Recall task, recognition task

Types of amnesia

Retrograde amnesia, Anterograde amnesia

Serial position effect

Tendency to recall items at the start of rend of a list better than items in the middle of a list.

Primacy Effect

Recalling items better when they are learned first

Recency effect

Recalling items better when they are learned last

Ivan Pavlov

The accidental founded of classical conditioning

B.F Skinner 

Shaping- successive approximations

Thorndike

“Law and effect”

Tolman learning theory psychology

learning involves the acquisition of cognitive maps

Retroactive Interference

New info interferes with old

Proactive interference

Old info interferes with new

Ordinary wakefulness

Fast, low-amplitude beta waves

Relaxed wakefulness

Rhythmic alpha waves

Stage 1 sleep 

Small, irregular brain waves

stage 2 sleep

appearance of spindle-shaped waves called sleep spindles

stage 3/4 sleep 

Appearance of large, slow delta waves

Insomnia Disorder

Difficulty falling asleep, staying asleep, or returning to sleep after waking up at night.

Narcolepsy disorder

Sudden, unexplained “sleep attacks” during the daytime hours. REM sleep begins almost immediately after an attack.

Sleep apnea

Breathing stops, many times a night, even hundred’s of time. More often occurs with middle aged and or older adults, as well as people who are overweight/ obese.

Nightmare disorder

Frequent, disturbing nightmares. Children more prone to this disorder. Occurs during the REM stages of sleep

Sleep Terror disorder

Also known as night terrors are more intense than nightmares, and occur during deeper levels of sleep. Primarily affects children. Very little about the night terror is usually remembered. 

Sleepwalking disorder

Remaining asleep though eyes are open, occurs during deeper levels of sleep and no memories are usually recalled

Chunking memory Short-term

The process of breaking down information into smaller, more easily recalled “chunks”

Maintenance rehearsal Short-term

Repeating information over and over again to retain it in short term memory

Elaborative rehearsal Short-term

Strengthening new memories by forming associations between the new information and existing memories or knowledge 

Episodic memory 

the memory of a specific event (example, i had a salad for lunch)

Semantic memory 

Knowledge learned over many interactions (example, Paris is the capital of France)

Meditation 

Narrowing attention to a single object, word, or thought, or performing a repetitive ritual

Storage

Retaining information in memory

Retrograde Amnesia 

Gaps in memory for past events

Anterograde Amnesia

Difficulty forming new memories

Recall Tasks

Test of the ability to reproduce information held in memory

Recognition task

Test of the ability to recognize material held in the memory

Behavior Modification 

A method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning.

Latent content

Hidden meaning of a dream, which is symbolic and not immediately recognized; unconscious thoughts desires and conflicts that the dreamer is repressing

Manifest content

The literal story line of the dream, includes people, places, and events that are remembered upon waking up

Serial Position Effect

our tendency to remember information that is at the beginning or end of a series rather than in the middle of a list.

MONEY??

Secondary reinforcer