8: Socioemotional Development in Early Childhood

initiative versus guilt

• children use perceptual, motor, cognitive, and language skills to make things happen

• children exuberantly move out into the wider social world on their own intiative

• the great governor of initiative is conscience

• initiative and enthusiasm may bring guilt, which lowers self-esteem

self-understanding

the representation of self, the substance and content of self-conceptions

• physical activities: a central component of the self in early childhood

the self

• increased awareness reflects young children’s expanding psychological sophistication

• children’s self-description tend to be unrealistically positive—a self-protective feature—and tend to confuse ability and effort

• a better basic understanding of emotions in early childhood enables children to develop a more advanced understanding of other’s perspectives

understanding others

• children start perceiving others in terms of psychological traits

• they also begin to develop an understanding of joint commitments

  • as they approach their third birthday, collaborative interactions increasingly involve obligations to a partner

• young children are not as egocentric as depicted in piaget’s theory

expression emotions

pride, shame, embarrassment, and guilt are examples of self-conscious emotions

• during the early-childhood years, pride and guilt become more common

• these are influences by parent’s responses to children’s behavior

understanding emotions

• children’s understanding of emotions is linked to an increase in prosocial behavior

• children begin to understand that the same event can elicit different feelings in different people

• by age 5, most children show more ability to reflect on emotions and a growing awareness of the need to manage emotions according to social standards

regulating emotions

• plays a key role in children’s ability to manage the demands and conflicts they face in interacting w/ others

• parents can be described as taking an emotion-coaching or emotion-dismissing approach to helping children regulate emotions

• the ability to modulate emotions benefits children in their relationships w/ peers

emotion-coaching parents monitor their children’s emotions

• view negative emotions as opportunities for teaching

• assist them in labeling emotions

• coach them in how in deal effectively with emotions

emotion-dismissing parents view their role as to deny, ignore, or change negative emotions

• linked to toddlers’ lower emotional competence

emotion regulation and peer relations

• emotions play a role in the success of a child’s peer relationships

• moody and emotionally negative children are more likely to experience rejections, whereas emotionally positive children are more popular

• higher emotion regulation is linked to greater success w/ peers, while frequent expression of anger predicts lower social competence

moral development

involves thoughts, feelings, and behavior regarding rules and conventions about what people should do in their interactions w/ other people

moral feelings

feelings of anxiety and guilt are central to the account of moral development provided by Freud’s psychoanalytic theory

• children from the superego—the moral element of personality—in part to reduce anxiety and avoid punishment

although Freud’s ideas are not backed by research, emotions, and guilt can motivate behavior

other emotions also contribute

what do developmentalists believe today regarding positive and negative feelings?

many developmentalists believe both positive feelings and negative feelings contribute to children’s moral development

• when these emotions are strongly experiences, they influenced children to act in accord w/ standards of right and wrongs

sympathy often motivated prosocial behavior

moral reasoning

piaget sugggested two distinct stages in thinking about morality

• heteronomous morality: from approximately 4-7 years of age; justice and rules are conceived of as unchangeable properties of the world, removed from the control of people

• the heteronomous thinker also believes in immanent justice: if a rule is broken, punishment will be meted out immediately

• autonomous morality: older children becomes aware that rules and laws are created by people, and that when judging an action, one should consider the actor’s intentions as well as the consequences

what parent-child relationships are less likely to advance moral reasoning

parent-child relations in which parents have the power and children do not are less likely to advance moral reasoning, because rules are handed down in an authoritarian manner

moral behavior

• according to the behavioral and social cognitive approaches, the processes of reinforcement, punishment, and imitation explain the development of moral behavior

• in the moral behavior view, the situation also influences behavior

• cognitive factors are important in the child’s development of self-control

conscience

an internal regulation of standards of right and wrong that involves integrating moral thought, feeling, and behavior

• children who are securely attached are more likely to internalize parents’ values and rules

other aspects of parents and child relationships that contribute to children’s moral development include

• relational quality, parental discipline, proactive strategies, and conversational dialogue

gender

the characteristics of people as males and females

gender identity

the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the age of 3

gender roles

a cultural set of expectations that prescribes how females or males should think, act and feel

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role

what makes up gender

• biological influences

• chromosomes

• hormones

  • play a key role in the development of sex differences

  • estrogens influence the development of female physical sex characteristics

  • androgens promote the development of male physical sex characteristics

• evolution

  • adaptation during human evolution produced psychological difference between males and females

• social influences

gender social influences

• social role theory

• psychoanalytic theory of gender

• social cognitive theory of gender

social role theory

gender differences result from the contrasting roles of women and men

psychoanalytic theory of gender

the preschool child develops a sexual attraction to the opposite-sex parents

social cognitive theory of gender

children’s gender development occurs through observation and imitation of others’ words and actions

parents, by action and by examples, influence gender development

• mothers’ socialization strategies encourage daughters to be obedient and responsible, and restrict daughters’ autonomy

• fathers’ socialization strategies give more attention to sons and put forth more effort to promote sons’ intellectual development

peer influences are also significant

• peers extensively rewards and punish gender behavior

• preschoolers prefer socializing with the same gender

• boys are likely to associate in larger clusters than girls are

• boys tend to play more competitively, while girls tends to engage in “collaboratie discourse”

gender schema theory

children gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture

• a schema is a cognitive structure, a network of associations that guides perceptions

• a gender schema organizes the world in terms of female and male

children are motivated to act in ways that conforms to gender schemas creates through their observations of their cultures

as compared to non-parents, parents:

• are typically more satisfied w/ their lives

• feel relatively better on a daily basis

• have more positive feelings toward children and daily activities

juggling work and child care can be challenging, however

good parenting takes time and effort

Baumrind’s parentings styles:

• authoritarian parenting

• authoritative parenting

• neglectful parenting

• indulgent parenting

Baumrind’s parentings styles: authoritarian parentings

a restrictive, punitive style

• child is to follow directions and respect parents’ work and effort

• allows little verbal exchange

• associated w/ children’s social incompetence and a higher level of aggression

Baumrind’s parentings styles: authoritative parenting

encourages children to be independent but still places limits and controls on their actions

• extensive verbal give-and-take is allowed

• associated w/ children’s social competence and prosocial behavior

Baumrind’s parentings styles: neglectful parenting

the parent is uninvolved in the child’s life

• associated w/ social incompetence in children, along w/ poor self-control, low self-esteem, immaturity, and alienation

• in adolescence, may contribute to truancy and delinquency

Baumrind’s parentings styles: indulgent parenting

parents are highly involved w/ their children but place few demands or controls on them

• children never learn to control their own behavior and always expect to get their way

• children rarely learn respect for others, have difficulty controlling their behavior

• they may be domineering, egocentric, and noncompliant, and they have difficulties in peer relations

what parenting style conveys the most benefits to child and the family as a whole?

authoritative parenting

the parenting styles do not capture the themes of reciprocal socializarion and synchrony

children socialize parents, just as parents socialize children

true or false. most parents use a combination of techniques; and two parents may have different styles

true. some critics argue the concept of parenting styles is too broad

• especially in traditional cultures, fathers have an authoritarian style and mothers a more permissive, indulgent style

physical punishment is outlawed in how many countries as of 2020

59 countries

reasons for avoiding harsh punishments

• present an out-of-control model

• can instill fear, rage, or avoidance

• focus on what not to do, rather than what to do

• can be abusive

most child psychologists recommend handling misbehavior by reasoning w/ the child and explaining consequences for others

It is still unclear if the effects of physical punishments are by their nature harmful to children’s development

• Some argue that when used in a calm, reasoned manner, children’s development benefits

• As with other research on parenting, the research is correlational.

If physical punishment is used, it needs to be

• mild

• infrequent

• age-appropriate

• used in the context of a positive parent-child relationship

coparenting

the support that parents provide one another in raising a child

Conditions that place children at risk for problems include:

• Poor coordination between parents

• Undermining of the other parent

• Lack of cooperation and warmth

• Disconnection by one parent.

types of child maltreatment

• physical abuse

• child neglect

• sexual abuse

• emotional abuse (psychological/verbal abuse/mental injury)

the context of abuse

• no single factor causes child maltreatment

• a combination of factors, including culture, family, and developmental characteristics, likely contributes

Among the family and family-associated characteristics that may contribute to abuse are

• parenting stress

• substance abuse

• social isolation

• single parenting

• socioeconomic difficulties

about 1/3 of parents who were abused themselves when they were young go on to abuse their own children

consequences of maltreatment

• poor emotion regulation, attachment problems, poor peer relations, difficulty in adapting to school, and depression

• physical abuse is linked to diminished cognitive development and school engagement

• abuse/neglect in childhood increases risk of adolescent engagement in violent romantic relationships, delinquency, sexual risk taking, and substance abuse

• physical or sexual abuse has also been linked to an increase in 13 to 18-year-olds’ suicide ideation, plans, and attempts

In the adult years, individuals who were maltreated as children are more likely to experience

• physical ailments

• mental problems

• sexual problems

Two treatments appear effective in reducing child maltreatment:

• home visitation that emphasizes improved parenting, coping w/ stress, and increased support for the mother

• parent-infant psychotherapy that focuses on improving maternal-infant attachment

social support and coping skills are important

what percentage of American children have siblings

80%

Conflict is a dimension of most sibling relationships, but so are helping, sharing, teaching, playing, emotional support, and rivalry

when there are conflicts between siblings, the most frequent parental reaction is to do nothing at all

three important aspects of siblings relationships

• emotional quality: intense positive and negative emotions are often expressed

• familiarity and intimacy

• considerable variation

birth order

• compared w/ later-born children, firstborn children have been described as more adult-oriented, helpful, conforming, and self-controlled

• only children are often achievement-oriented

• many researchers stress that birth order by itself shows limited accuracy in predicting behavior

working parents

• More than one of every two U.S. mothers with a child under the age of 5 is in the labor force

• Children of working mothers engage in less gender stereotyping and have more egalitarian views of gender than do children of nonworking mothers

• The effects of working parents involve the father as well

• The nature of parents’ work has more influence on development than whether a parent works outside the home

• Poor working conditions are associated with less effective parenting.

children in divorced families

Forty percent of children born to married parents in the United States will experience their parents’ divorce

Are children in intact families better adjusted?

Children of divorced families do show poorer adjustment; and those who experience multiple divorces are at greater risk.

A majority of children in divorced families do not have significant adjustment problems, however

• One study found that 20 years later, about 80% of adults concluded that their parents’ decision had been a wise one

Should parents stay together for the children?

If family relationships are eroding the well-being of children, divorce can be advantageous. If the diminished resources and increased risks of divorce are accompanied by inept parenting and sustained conflict, it may be best to retain the unhappy marriage.

How much do family processes matter?

When divorced parents can agree on child-rearing and maintain a cordial relationship, children benefit

• Coparenting is associated with positive child outcomes

Gay and lesbian parents

• Like heterosexual couples, gay and lesbian parents vary greatly

• Few differences have been observed between children growing up in homosexual families and those in heterosexual families— including no differences in peer relationships and mental health adjustment

• Lesbian and gay couples share child care more than heterosexual couples.

Families within different ethnic groups in the United States differ in many significant respects

For example, single-parent families are more common among Black American and Latinos

Perspectives on ethnic differences have often been deficit-based, but research indicates ethnic minority adolescents fare better than expected.

• Assume higher levels of responsibility

• In immigrant families, help parents adapt

Immigrant families often experience stressors uncommon to or less prominent among longtime residents

Low-income families have less access to resources, and this is compounded by long-term poverty

In most Western cultures, lower-SES parents:

• Are concerned that children conform to societal expectations

• Make it clear that parents have authority, use more physical punishment, and are more directive and less conversational.

In contrast, higher-SES parents:

• Are more concerned with developing children’s initiative

• Children are more nearly equal participants

• Parents are less likely to use physical punishment and are less directive and more conversational.

Peers are children of about the same age or maturity level.

Functions include providing a source of information and comparison about the world outside the family

Good peer relations are necessary for normal socioemotional development

The preference for same-sex playmates increases with age

• Young children are more likely than older children to have friends who are of a different gender and ethnicity.

• Parents’ lifestyle decisions determine their children’s friend choices both directly and indirectly

Play is an important aspect of development.

According to Freud and Erikson, play helps children master anxieties and conflicts

• Therapists use play therapy to allow children to work off frustrations and to analyze conflicts and ways of coping.

play is also an important context for:

• cognitive development

• exploratory behavior

• the development of language and communication skills

sensorimotor play

when infants derive pleasure from exercising their existing sensorimotor schemes

practice play

involves the repetition of behavior when new skills are being learned or when mastery is required

pretense/symbolic play

transforms the physical environment into symbols

social play

involves interaction w peers

constructive play

combines sensorimotor/practice play with symbolic representation

games

activities that are engaged in for pleasure and that have rules

trends in play

Today’s children have a smaller amount of time for free play

• Often playtime is restricted at home and school so they can spend more time on academic subjects.

Hirsh-Pasek, Golinkof, and Singer argue that learning in playful contexts captivates children’s minds in ways that enhance their cognitive and socioemotional development

television continues to have a strong influence on development

• some types of TV shows are linked to positive outcomes

Too much screen time can have a negative influence by:

• making children passive learners

• distracting from homework

• teaching stereotypes, violent models of aggression, and unrealistic views of the world

Other negative outcomes associated with screen time:

• less times spent in play and w/ peers

• decreased physical activity and an increase in obesity

• lower cognitive development

• poor sleep habits

A higher degree of parental monitoring of children’s media use has been linked to more positive outcomes

• parental reduction in their own screen time are associated w/ decreased screen time for their children

Television can have a positive influence by:

• presenting motivating education programs

• providing information about the world

  • displaying models of prosocial behaviors

Violence and aggression on television raises special concerns.

Research has shown it is associated with more physical aggression in children, as is playing violent video games—in both males and females