gender and society

what does Ruether say about feminism?

Feminism is a critical stance that challenges the patriarchal gender paradigm that associates males with human characteristics defined as superior and dominant (rationality, power) and females with those defined as inferior and auxiliary (intuition, passivity)”.

what did first wave feminism involve?

•Harriet Taylor Enfranchisement of Women (1851)

•Campaigned for voting rights, equality in marriage and divorce law, financial independence and equal pay.

•Argued that women should have “equality in all rights, political, civil, and social, with the male citizen of the community.”

•Married to John Stuart Mill and effectively co-authored Mill’s Essay On Liberty.

what is second wave feminism?

•Tackling patriarchy (male dominated culture and institutions) requires deep change of attitude.

•Betty Friedan The Feminine Mystique (1963) discovered women were bored and dissatisfied with their housewife role they felt oblige to play (the feminine mystique of the dutiful wife).

•Should have courage to abandon these expectations, to acknowledge there is no ‘maternal instinct’ and to pursue their own careers and independent lives.

“The feminine mystique has succeeded in burying millions of American women alive”. Betty Friedan (1963:102)

what did third wave feminism involve?

•Simone de Beauvoir’s The Second Sex (1949) argued that women suffered from false-consciousness – accepting deep seated prejudices and seeing themselves as inferior second sex.

•Women accept that their role is to be an ideal of what men expect of them. They allowed themselves to become a passive bystander as wife, lover, sex object, homemaker, child-rearer.

•Women need to abandon the idealized eternal woman imposed on them by men; there are no essential feminine gender characteristics. This will free them to be the women they choose; to live authentic liberated and fulfilled lives.

what does fourth wave feminism involve?

•more focus on intersectionality- overlapping systems of oppression, domination and discrimination (e.g. sexism and racism). Ruling group constructs and controls the representation and identity of minority and majority groups (otherness).

•Focused on the use and role of social media.

what is a biblical teaching on the role of women?

•In Genesis 1: God creates two distinctive sexes at the same time and ‘in his own image’(Genesis 1:27); both are equal in value and they have the same role: to procreate and to care for life as stewards of the natural world.

what does genesis 2 say about men and women?

“This is now bone of my bones
    and flesh of my flesh;
he shall be called ‘man,’
    for he was taken out of woman.”

²⁴ That is why a woman leaves her father and mother and is united to her husband, and they become one flesh.

what does Ann Atkins say about genesis 2?

“The same sexist message emerges. She couldn’t cope on her own: man had to be created to bail her out. Part of her body was taken away to make his: she’ll never again be complete without him. She was made of dust: he of glorious human flesh. And he was made last, after the plants, the animals and certainly after the woman: he is the crown of God’s creation.”

•The hermeneutic of suspicion causes us to see that a patriarchal view colours our reading of Genesis 2

what are the hermeneutics of suspicion?

•Feminists share a commitment to unmasking “the lies and illusions of consciousness”.

•They are the architects of a distinctively modern style of interpretation that circumvents obvious meanings in order to draw out less visible and less flattering truths.

•There is a gap between the true meaning of the text and its apparent meaning – the text needs to be deconstructed to demonstrate influences and distortions within it.

what are some Biblical teachings on the role of men and women in the family?

•In Genesis 1: God creates two distinctive sexes at the same time and ‘in his own image’(Genesis 1:27); both are equal in value and they have the same role: to procreate and to care for life as stewards of the natural world.

•In Genesis 2: Adam, an ungendered human, is created first; Eve is created out of him to be his ‘helper suitable for him’ (Gen 2:18); there are gender distinctions; men and women complement each other.

In Genesis 3: As the result of the Fall different gender roles emerge; women will be mothers and ruled over by their husbands (Gen 3:16); men will work and provide food for the family (Gen 3:17-19).

what are some examples of female leaders in the church?

•Priscilla and Aquila (Rom 16:4) whom Paul calls ‘fellow-workers in Christ’ and who were missionaries and ‘explained the way of God more accurately’ (to Apollos, ‘a learned man’ who spoke in the synagogues of Ephesus).

•Phoebe (Rom 16:1-2) who delivered Paul’s letter in her house church and was a ‘deacon’ in church of Cenchrea.

•Apphia (Philemon 1:1-3) was the wife of and possibly a fellow leader of a house church in Colossae.

•Junia(s) was a fellow prisoner of Paul’s ‘of note among the apostles who were also in Christ before me’. Some say she was a female disciple of Jesus’. It is a grammatical issue; was she ‘prominent among’ the apostles or ‘well known to’ the apostles?

what would traditional Christians think about feminist teachings?

•Traditional Christians consider biblical teachings as setting timeless ethical standards. The bible has authority as the word of God, sets high standards and should resist buying into secular changes.

•Feminism and changing views of gender roles are considered as destabilising; contributing to the break down of the family; setting unrealistic expectations for women; encouraging relationships to be private, egocentric, focused on pleasure not commitment

what does MD say about gender roles?

•equal in image and likeness of God;

•different roles determined by God (essentialist view). Observably, women have unique role as wife and mother. They should not take on  ‘male characteristics’.

•Marriage is a mutual relationship of equals; man is ‘head’ of woman; this does not mean he has ‘dominion’ or ‘possesses’ her; he should treat her as an equal and with respect.

what does MD say about motherhood?

•Motherhood gives women have a special place in God’s salvation- Mary as role model; she is theotokos, the God-bearer; responds with obedience and humility to her calling.

•By desiring to be parents, men and women reflect the mystery of generative love inherent in the Trinity.

•Having children involves a ‘sincere gift of self’ of the mother. She has a ‘special openness’ to the new person, is ‘naturally disposed to motherhood’.

•Mother’s role as parent is special but not unique; she sets and example and challenges the man who is ‘not so psychologically predisposed to parenthood’ and teaches the man what is required so ‘in their shared parenthood he owes a special debt to the woman’.

•This means the woman is not passive but an active part of God’s plan, safeguarding and passing on the word of God.

Pain in childbirth allows women an insight into the suffering of Christ; means women are better able to cope with suffering and more sensitive than men

why do roman catholics say sex has to be contained in marriage?

•Marriage came to be seen as a sacrament: an ontological union (a metaphysical union at the level of being) the two are no longer separate; divorce/dissolution is not possible.

•Refer to Jesus in Mk 10:1-12 what God has joined together, let no man separate.

→Catholic Church: divorcees who have remarried are committing adultery and are excluded from sacramental communion.

what do traditional catholics say about homosexuality?

•described as: ‘intrinsically disordered’ in Humanae Vitae;

Catechism of the Catholic Church paras 2357-9:

•against natural law: not procreative and frustrates primary purpose of sex; falls short of the ideal of Christian marriage.

•but not sinful, since the inclination or orientation towards person of same sex is not freely chosen;

•requires chastity;

•respectful and compassionate treatment of homosexual people.

what does the catholic church say about the priesthood of women?

Roman Catholics (officially) and conservative evangelical Christians are united in believing women’s ordination to priests and bishops is wrong:

•Historical Jesus was male; he is God incarnate; his representative on earth also needs to be male.

•the example recorded in the sacred Scriptures of Christ’s choosing His Apostles only from among men

•the constant practice of the Church, which has imitated Christ.

•The living teaching authority which has consistently held that the exclusion of women from the priesthood is in accordance with God’s plan for His Church in first building it on the ‘rock’ of St Peter

what are some strengths of MD?

•is an attempt to respond to contemporary feminism: acknowledges that women have dignity and value, an important place in society and that those who abused and marginalised need protection.

Far more egalitarian than earlier church teachings on gender roles; role of the mother as ‘special gift’ shared by some secular feminists.

what are some issues with MD?

•Defines women almost entirely in terms of motherhood; over-romanticises At loggerheads with feminists (de Beauvoir; Friedan) who see motherhood as false-consciousness of the ‘eternal feminine’ or ‘feminine mystique’.

•Omits other fundamental Christian teachings which would engage the church fully with contemporary society and which would enable it to enhance gender relationships by adding a spiritual dimension.

what does Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza say about MD?

•Church has unconsciously written women out of history.

•Women leaders: Priscilla, Aquila, Phoebe, Junia

•Need to uncover early history of Christianity which challenges stereotypes.

•Bible supports women’s struggle and Jesus liberates from confines of patriarchal sexism.

what does Catharina Halkes say about MD?

•Criticises headship teaching and failure to stress mutuality.

•Kingdom of God requires social and spiritual transformation.

•Women must take special gift of care into the public sphere.

•Men must give up sense of entitlement and privilege and learn virtue of care in everyday life.

what is a liberal Protestant view of Biblical teachings?

•Bible as source of inspiration not revelation. There is a struggle between wanting to conform to socially accepted behaviour of the time and the radical implications of Christian teaching on agape and a new social order including the marginalised.

•Christianity should learn from and adapt to current ideas; become a force for a fairer, inclusive, non-hierarchical society. Focus should be on fundamental values continually relevant in society.

what is an issue with the liberal view?

•loss of distinctiveness

what are some examples of changing family relations?

1.Divorce Reform Act 1969 (‘no fault’ divorces now possible)

2.Single parent families now constitute 25% of total

3.Decline in marriage

4.Births outside marriage (48% in 2015)

5.Blended families – 11% of coupled families with dependent children have step-parents

what are the three views of sex/gender?

•Essentialist View that gender differences are essential to our nature (view of the church)

•Exitentialist View that gender differences are product of nurture (upbringing and role models) – view of feminists eg Simone de Beauvoir femininity is a social construct (1966, The Second Sex)

•Power Relations View Michael Foucault prefers the term ‘sexuality’ to ‘gender’ as a spectrum of sexual identities exist. Control of sexual practices are a means of maintaining power (marriage laws, anti-gay laws, divorce laws)

how can Ephesians 5 be interpreted?

•“The husband is head of the wife as Christ is head of the Church”. (Ephesians 5)

•Head could mean ‘authority over the wife who should obey without question’ (see the old marriage vow)

•But had can also mean ‘source of life’ referring to Genesis 2:21 – the man is the source of the life of Eve in creation. This seems to emphasise relationship rather than power.

•The key verse of Ephesians maybe “submit to one another out of reverence to Christ’ (Ephesians 5:21) meaning something like ‘put one another first and yourself second’.

why are Roman Catholics against female priesthood?

•the example recorded in the sacred Scriptures of Christ’s choosing His Apostles only from among men

•the constant practice of the Church, which has imitated Christ in choosing only men

•The living teaching authority which has consistently held that the exclusion of women from the priesthood is in accordance with God’s plan for His Church in first building it on the ‘rock’ of St Peter

what is complementarity?

idea that distinctive sexes compliment each other, exist symbiotically  

Why is being submissive an aspect of a good ordered society  

Catholic position – theology of body, we can see the co-dependency of Adam and Eve's relationship 

what passage is a set text?

Ephesians 5:21-33

what does Ephesians 5:21-33 say about gender?

• ‘Wives submit yourselves to your own husbands as you do the Lord’

• ‘husbands ought to love their wives as their own bodies.’

• ‘submit to one another out of reverence to Christ’

Hiearchy of submission – contradiction at the beginning as he starts with saying 'submit to one another' implying equality but then changes to 'Wives, submit yourselves to your own husbands as you do 

Role of men as a caregiver and women should be more inferior and submissive  

Underlying tone of enslavement and subversion   

what did Aristotle say about feminism?

‘we should regard women’s nature as suffering from natural defectiveness’

what does Aquinas say about feminism?

‘it is a constant that woman is destined to live under the authority of man, and has no authority of her own’

what does Ann Atkins say about feminism?

‘Before we become good wives or husbands we must all learn to be good Christians. We must all become self-sacrificing and submissive’

what does de Beauvoir say in the second sex?

Not just the mindset of men that needs challenging but that if women – most independent women still suffer from the false-consciousness which supports society's gender-typical roles of men and women 

The second sex – women have allowed themselves for centuries to become the second sex and act as the role of the wife according to the needs of men.  

As they live in this form of false-consciousness they cannot live fully liberated and fulfilled lives  

-> men and women do not have the freedom to choose their gender identies so these have become defined and trapped by society, includes the expectations of other women just as much as those of men  

For too long women have encouraged themselves to believe in the 'eternal feminine' the idea that as the second sex their role should be an ideal of what men expect of them -> women have allowed themselves to become passive bystanders in society 

The aim of the second sex is to expose the areas where women have traditionally considered that their gender roles are intrinsic to their sex – as there is no eternal feminine this enables women to be liberated to live the lives they want  

what is the essentialist view of sex and gender?

are distinctive feminine and masculine characteristics which are not the product of society buy are intrinsic to biology or nature e.g. womens bodies are designed to bear children so their gender identity is naturally more nurturing and domestic 

what is the existentialist view of sex and gender?

Biological sex of little significance and the gender characteristics are the product of nurture through culture and upbringing. Male-dominated societies throughout history have tended to objectify women however existentialists would argue this objectivity is socially constructive  

what did Foucault say about gender and power?

One secular approach is to abandon the essentialist/existentialist distinction and to focus on the problem of sexuality from the perspective of power.  

Was developed by Michel Foucault – analysis of sexual history from the ancient Greeks to the present day demonstrated that human sexuality cannot be defined in simple binary terms as male/female but covers a spectrum  

-> sexuality cannot easily be defined and the purpose of sex is pleasure, companionship and education – ars erotica 

what is Foucault’s issue with controlling sexual practices?

a useful means of maintaining power e.g. Scientia sexualis can be seen in the way the Chruch's place in Western society was maintained by its control and regularisation of men and women's sexual practices and gender roles through marriage  

As Church's influence has weakened its role has been replaced by doctors, psychoanalysts and sociologists who have imposed their ideas of correct behaviour.  

 

what are the teachings on women in genesis 1?

men and women are both created in the image of God and their primary roles are to reproduce and maintain the natural order of the world -> gender distinctions become exaggerated after the Fall and as a result God commands women to be mothers that will be ruled over by their husbands and men will work + provide 

what is God’s covenant ideal?

In traditional teaching the effects of the Fall mean that human nature has become so distorted that men and women cannot live according to the natural order alone -> God re-establishes human relationships as a covenant ideal  

Jeremiah's covenant is based on the heart and relationships – this notion of covenant is central to Jesus' teaching and his message appears to have offered women in particular a liberated sense of their gender roles  

+ in Galatian churches St Paul describes the new covenant's effect on gender and family 'there is no longer male or female; for all of you are one in Christ Jesus'  

what do the right's (branch of conservative Protestant Christianity) believe?

Social liberalism and feminism in both secular and Christian forms are the principal causes of increased divorce, dysfunctional families and sexual immorality which 'corrupt' the morals of the young 

Conservative Protestant theology believes that men and women are created equal but different by God, each to fulfil their different gender roles 

why do they believe this?

• God created men and women differently from the beginning  

• God ordained that men and women would have different gender roles and that society functions best when these 'orders of creation' are observed -> recognising that in marriage man is 'head of the women' 

Therefore reject the existential idea of gender which is not a product of culture but determined by biological sex as ordered by God in his creation and after the Fall  

what do conservative Protestant Christians say?

View that biblical theology is timeless and should resist buying into secular changes in society. Not all conservative theology is Biblicist, but Bible is foundation for teachings  

what do conservative Protestant Christians say about gender roles?

Teachings are rooted in traditional views from Augustine via Luther to the present day and driving force is a mistrust of socially liberal ideologies named on secular knowledge. The right argues that feminism has confused gender roles and set up an unrealistic expectations for women which cause disappointment and dissatisfaction  

The right's views include the belief that social liberalism and feminism in both secular and Christian forms are the principal causes of increased divorce, dysfunctional families and sexual immorality which 'corrupt' the morals of the young and ultimately undermine a happy nation. Protestant theology believes that men and women are created equal but different by God to fulfil their gender roles.  

what do Conservative protestant Christians say about motherhood and parenthood?

Believe that a women's role is to be wife and mother and create the domestic haven where her husband can escape from the external world. While others might consider such as submissive role for women outdated, they don't equate it as a weakness – role of wife and mother is traced back to Eve  

A mothers role is to bring life into the world, to nurture and lead it into the knowledge and love of God. Conservative theology is especially critical of those who undermine these roles – a women who works outside the home removes a job from the man but dimishes his role and responsibilities to his wife  

A women may work if this does not detract from her duties and role as a mother  

what would conservative protestant christians say about different types of families?

Suspicious of any relationship that is not heterosexual and where the couple is not married 

• Bible's account of the order of creation requires parents to compliment each other in terms of gender 

• Despite being suspicious of secular sociological research, they endorse evidence which indicates that children do less well educationally and couples are less happy in blended families  

what are cpc’s suspicious of?

Critical of social trends which have permitted the rise of cohabitation and same-sex relationships:  

• Led to the eroticisation of western society e.g. foucalt is typical of those who defined love as pleasure rather than commitment  

• Relationships have become too private while Christian teaching on the family is that it should be outward looking, through church attendence and contributing to society 

• Couples expect too much from relationships and with the ease of divorce there is no compulsion to make relationships work whereas Christianity teaches clear gender roles and expectation of marriage as a permanent state – couples have strong reasons to make family life work  

what do liberal protestant christians say about gender roles?

Remind us that the point of the biblical covenant ideal which governs gender roles is that gender is not intrinsic in nature because the covenant is a human reflection on what it means to be in a relationship with God  

what do lpc’s say about motherhood and parenthood?

Has no particular symbolic or ontological significance – for some women being a parent is a means of directing one's creative energies into forming a family however there is imperative that this is something people must do  

Acknowledge that not all adults make good parents and then it clearly makes more sense to find a different vocation in life.

→ Liberal Christians would be more inclined to share de Beauvoir's and Friedan's views that the Church's motherhood ideal is sometimes a source of false-consciousness.

tend to find the emphasis on Mary the Mother of Christ as the symbol of womanhood stereotyped  although they argue that secular feminists are quick to dismiss positive aspects of parenthood.  

what would lpc’s say about non traditional families?

Jesus' teaching on the Kingdom of God was based on a new covenant idea first suggested by Jeremiah that the old social order would give way to a more inclusive, non-hierarchical and non-judgemental society → Jesus' ministry was aimed at the marginalised, including women and those treated as sexual outsiders

= liberal Protestants argue that their various churches need to be more flexible in their understanding of family and to exercise what they call 'justice love'.  

Bible illustrates that there has never been one kind of family – families referred to in the NT include servants and their children + in the NT the Christian family may also refer to all members who are related to each other through love and faith and not blood kinship – a 'community of friends' which suggests a more inclusive model of family.  

what are roman catholic responses to feminism?

Effects of feminist theology can be seen in Pope John Paul II's Mulieris Dignitatem, letter acknowledges that the relationship and roles of women and men have not always been understood well – especially the treatment of women  

Aims to correct this by using the Bible – the paradigm of Mary as the mother of God and theotokos, Mary's role illustrates the special role of women in the process of salvation, by giving birth to Christ she illustrates human virtues of obedience and dignity for men and women  

what does the rc say about gender roles?

Concerned to show how the Church responds to feminists who have accused the Church of patriarchy and sexism – states that Christian basic notion of gender is that men and women are made in God's likeness but rejects the traditional view that man is the active principle and women the passive.  

Men and women are both made in God's image = equally creative and active in differing ways which is most strikingly observed in the woman's capacity to be a wife and a mother  

Order of creation determines that while gender roles may be affected by environment, gender is not culturally and environmentally determined.  

what does RC say about motherhood and parenthood?

Letter acknowledges the significant and positive social shift to attitudes towards women in recent times but firmly rejects the kind of feminist criticisms made by writer such as de Beauvior that motherhood is demeaning to women.  

Views on motherhood can be summarised: 

• Mary as the model of motherhood – role as mother of Christ illustrates unique place in salvation of world, annunciation is a sign of Mary's readiness to be a mother and accept a new life. 

• Mystery of generation – idea that men and women are both equally and uniquely created by God. By desiring to be parents, men and women reflect the mystery of generation inherent in the Holy Trinity.  

• Special gift – having a child is special and 'sincere gift of self' of a mother in marriage and also a visible sign that husband and wife have become 'one flesh' 

• Mutuality – mothers role as parent is demanding and special but it is not hers alone but an example to the man of what is required of him 

• Active motherhood – changes and challenges the man so he can learn from her how to be a good father as men are not predisposed to fatherhood  

what are roman catholic feminist responses to feminism?

Second wave feminism has given many Catholic women the inspiration to reform CC – many traditions and teachings are inherently patriarchal + a reformed Church has a significant part to play in society by challenging secular views of the family and developing spirituality which enhances gender relationships  

what would roman catholic feminists say about gender roles?

Church has consciously and unconsciously written women out of Christian history when women used to play an equally significant role as men  

Catholic feminist theologian Elisabeth Schussler Fiorenza argues that there were any number of significant women leaders such as Priscilla, Apphia and Phoebe – early history creates a radical challenge to current Church teaching, knowing this enables Christian women to act in sisterly solidarity with those pioneering women in challenging gender stereotypes

what does Catharina Hakles say about gender roles?

Jesus' teaching on the Kingdom of God required social and spiritual transformation, so women must learn to develop their gift of care into the public sphere while men must give up their privileged sense of entitlement and learn the virtue of care in the everyday.

Criticises Mulerieis Dignitatem for failing to extend female/male mutuality far enough and for still privileging the male's role in the public sphere.  

what do roman catholic feminists say about motherhood/parenthood?

Consider the Chruch's views are over-romanticised and argue that motherhood should be an option not a burden. 

Issue with statements such as MD is that it defines women almost entirely in motherhood – an underlying patriarchal bias, which can guilt women into thinking if she takes on work outside the family she is a bad wife. 

what does MD say about women?

Emphasises the importance of motherhood as a women's vocation – women are naturally predisposed to have children  

States that parenthood belongs to both parents – some emphasis on equality but secondary to priority on eternal status is paramount e.g. men owes a special debt to the women  

Women are more perceptive of other people and therefore husband should learn from this  

Theotokos goes back to Mary being the bearer of mother of God, motherhood is then a mirror of this connection  

what are some issues with MD?

• Specific telos – gender identity is embedded and fixed -> rigidity in teaching 

-> link to societal rules in a nuclear family, traditional role of male work 

• Allows male detachment  

• Simone de Beauvoir – rejects biological essentialism and argues for a social construction approach to gender  

• Daly – argues all women should be lesbians  

what are some quotes from MD?

• "Both man and woman are human beings to an equal degree, both are created in God’s image."

• "The Church sees in Mary the highest expression of the ‘feminine genius’."

→ ✅ Use for: Catholic model of ideal womanhood—obedient, faithful, maternal.

⚠ Critique: Some feminists argue this ideal can be restrictive.

• "Motherhood and virginity are two particular dimensions of the vocation of women."

• ✅ Use for: Discussion of traditional Catholic roles for women.

• ⚠ Possible critique: Limits female identity to biological/spiritual roles.

"In his behavior towards women, Jesus of Nazareth is a model." (MD 13)

• ✅ Use for: Emphasizing how Jesus treated women with dignity and broke social taboos.

• 💬 Example: Samaritan woman (John 4), Mary Magdalene, etc.

what are traditional christian gender roles?

In Genesis, Adam is created first and Eve is created from a part of Adam. It also says Eve was created to be Adam’s ‘helper’.

Augustine interprets this as meaning that a man by himself contains the imagio dei, but a woman does not. Only when combined with husband as his helper can a woman be in the image of God.

Eve’s was the first to fall into sin. Her punishment was pain in childbirth and that her husband will “rule over you”

what does St Paul say this leads to?

St Paul says that because of this, women should not have authority over a man and can be saved through becoming mothers:

“I do not permit a woman to teach or to assume authority over a man; she must be quiet.

what did Aquinas say about traditional gender roles?

this submission of wives to husbands is actually for their “own benefit and good” and required for “good order” in the family, since men are wiser and more rational than women.

what is biblical patriarchy?

is a key concept in feminist biblical criticism. It is the idea that the Bible is man-made for the purpose of subjugating women. If a man tells a woman to submit to a certain gender role, that’s not persuasive, but if that man tells the woman that the creator of the universe wants her to, that is quite persuasive, especially if both the man and woman actually believe in that God.

what is a consequence of this?

consequence is that the Bible, or at least the sexist parts of it, are not the perfect word of God but written by men to further the interests of men.

Men will therefore be subconsciously drawn to ideology that serves their interests.

The view that men’s rightful place is being active in the world while women support them by being passive in the home, appeals to the self-interest of men. They therefore tend to support it, just as any group of humans would tend to support something which benefits them.

When the Bible came to be written, it felt only natural to its authors to include verses that reflected their subscription to a patriarchal ideology.

how would traditional christians respond?

the Bible is God’s inspired word. If God wants men and women to be different, then that’s what God wants. Of course, it can look like a conspiracy when you consider that all of the people in charge of Christianity throughout history have been men, but that’s how it would look even if it were truly God’s wish

They might argue that women who reject these bible passages are essentially acting like Eve did when she disobeyed God. All humans are called to a high standard by God, but many prefer to disobey and disbelieve rather than submit to it.

what is the liberal approach to the Bible?

views it as a product of the human mind, not the perfect word of God. It began during the enlightenment period where scientific, historical and literary critique began of the Bible.

Bible was shown to contain scientific and historical errors as well as literary evidence of the human author’s influence on the text.

what do liberal christians say about the Bible?

suggests that the scriptures were written by witnesses of God’s divine events in history like the incarnation, or times when God communicated or revealed himself. What came to be written down as a result however was merely what those people took away from such events, or from hearing about such events from the testimony of those who witnessed them. The words of the Bible are therefore just human interpretations of what the authors felt and understood of God’s revelation. The Bible is a human record of divine events.

The bible thus reflects the cultural and historical context of its human authors and requires interpretation and continual re-interpretation to ensure its relevance. It is not the perfect word of God. Liberal Christians will point out that Jesus himself seemed to be progressive in that in the sermon on the mount he modified some of the old testament laws.

Christians should follow this example and continually update and improve Christian theology and ethics.

what does Ruether say about the Bible?

the Bible contains patriarchal verses, but also verses that are in favour of equality. The Bible is therefore inconsistent on this issue and cannot itself coherently support the traditional patriarchal view of gender roles.

Golden thread argument

what would post-christian theologians say about the Bible?

(E.g. Daly & Hampson) however would regard the patriarchy in the Bible as evidence that the Christian God doesn’t exist because it’s man-made, which you can tell by the fact that the Bible gives men what is in their view a superior position to women. God did not make man, men made God.

what would be the feminist response to MD?

attempt to embed gender roles in telos is no different to biblical patriarchy. Just as the sexist parts of the Bible were either consciously or unconsciously invented by men for the perpetuation of male dominance, so too is the idea that God designed the telos of males and females to have different goals/inclinations.

feminists point to anthropological study of different human civilisations, where it is found that there is a large degree of variation regarding gender roles between different cultures. If we had a telos that gave us a natural inclination to behave along particular gender roles, we should not expect to find the diversity of approaches to and views on gender that we do.

They conclude that the Christian attempt to insist that God created women with a telos for motherhood is just a cultural invention by men in order to encourage women to adopt the passive social role of childrearing in the home so men can be active in the world and thus perpetuate their overrepresentation in important roles of power in our society

what would de Beauvoir say to MD?

a radical feminist who was an existentialist like Sartre. Existentialists rejected telos. Sartre argued that there was no objective purpose/telos because “existence precedes essence” meaning humans exist before they have a defined purpose and so have to subjectively define their purpose for themselves.

Sartre’s argument was a psychological one, that people cling to fabricated notions of objective purpose like telos because they are afraid of the intensity of the freedom involved in having to create their own purpose, which Sartre thought led to feelings of abandonment, anguish and despair (over our inability to act exactly as we’d like due to the constraints of the world). It’s much easier to believe in objective purpose than face that existential angst.

what is the second MD argument?

there are many female European saints and that Jesus coming to earth was only possible because of a woman, Mary, which he suggests shows the important place of women in Christian theology. The claim is that Christianity can’t be sexist since there are women it holds in high regard.

how would de Beauvoir respond to this?

argues that the Christian valuing of Mary shows that it is only through being a man’s “docile servant that she will be also a blessed saint” in Christianity.

how would Daly respond to this?

argues Mary is portrayed as a passive empty ‘void waiting to be made by the male’. She argues that Mary is a ‘rape victim’ because ‘physical rape is not necessary when the mind/will/spirit has already been invaded’.

The idea that God raped Mary might seem like a startling claim, however consider that there was no consent asked for, and even if there was consent consider the power difference between God and Mary, which would make God difficult to refuse and devalue any given consent.

. So, Jesus’ mother Mary is indeed put on a pedestal by Christianity, but only to encourage women to become passive, submissive and obedient so that women would all the better become the sexual property of men.

what does de Beauvoir say about gender roles?

“One is not born, but rather becomes a woman.”

This means she thinks that gender roles and differences are the result of socialisation, not biology. The gender divide started for biological reasons but its perpetuation is cultural. Men are physically stronger than women who are hindered by pregnancy, but men turned that biological superiority into socio-cultural superiority by using their power to instil gender norms.

She thinks most mothers are thereby ‘intimidated’ into becoming mothers, so not making a real choice for themselves. She argued that motherhood forces women to sacrifice their own desires and selves for the sake of child-rearing.

It’s not enough to give women choices when it’s their personalities and by extension ability to make choices which has been stunted by oppression.

De Beauvoir argued that there is no female biological nature because all women are different.

argued that to truly combat patriarchy requires people to “destroy the concept of motherhood”. There is no maternal instinct; how a mother feels about her child depends on the social context. As evidence for this de Beauvoir pointed out that many mothers dislike or resent their child in certain contexts. She attributes this to women being socially pressured into motherhood.

how would radical feminists disagree with de Beauvoir?

think that any woman who chooses to be a mother is suffering from ‘internalised misogyny’, meaning that woman has not made a free choice but has been brainwashed by patriarchal society.

Mary O’Brien is a naturalistic feminist who argued that motherhood can be a positive thing if women are in control of their choice to become a mother. O’Brien thought de Beauvoir devalued motherhood.

how does Pinker advocate for liberal feminism?

argues for biological essentialism. He is in favour of liberal feminism, arguing that there should be political and social equality, freedom of choice for women and that we should eliminate violence and discrimination against women.

how does Pinker disagree with radical feminism?

critical of radical feminism which he thinks believes in ‘tabula rasa’ meaning ‘blank slate’ – the view that the mind is blank from birth containing no human nature, so there is no brain sexual dimorphism.

The result of that would be zero innate cognitive differences between men and women. Pinker accuses radical feminism of holding this view for ideological reasons rather than a rational appreciation of the evidence of e.g. prenatal testosterone, so he claims it is against science. Pinker therefore expects a society freed from all sexism to still nonetheless lack a 50-50 split of men and women in all professions and social positions. This is because men and women, on average, have different temperaments, interests and goals.

how can Pinker be criticised?

Culture could explain Pinker’s data rather than biology: Temperament, interests and goals are indeed statistically different for men and women, but that does not prove they are innate. Society might condition men and women differently in those traits.

how does Oakley agree with de Beauvior?

a sociologist, interviewed women about motherhood. She concluded that the so-called ‘maternal instinct’ comes from culture rather than biology.

was based on her observations that women don’t instinctively know how to breastfeed and that the mothers who neglect their children were themselves often neglected as children → suggests Paul 11 is wrong to think that God created women with a maternal instinct.

Oakley also discovered many women found it frustrating to be a stay-at-home mother.

how can Oakley be criticised?

could be that childhood neglect creates traumas which interfere with the maternal instinct. That would explain why neglectful mothers tended to have been neglected themselves by their maternal instinct having been interfered with.

what are some secular attitudes to gender?

• movement away from Biblical foundations

• legal gender equality → equal opportunities e.g. maternal and paternal rights

what does Fiorenza state about the role of women?

are a number of significant female leaders, such as Priscilla, Apphia & Phoebe. Uncovering the history of early Christianity reveals a radical challenge to current Church teaching & organisation

what does Halkes state about the role of women?

Argues that as Jesus’ teaching on the Kingdom of God required social & spiritual transformation, women must learn to develop their gift of care & men must give up their privileged sense of entitlement & learn the virtue of care in the everyday.

what does Foucault say about the role of women?

The purposes of sex include pleasure, companionship & education, he calls this ars erotica.

The control of sexual practices – scientia sexualis – is a means of maintaining power. The Church does this by regularising men & women’s sexual practices. At the Church’s influence has weakened, doctors, psychoanalysts & sociologists have replaced this role.

what does Friedan state about the role of women in society?

Carried out research that showed that whilst middle-class women of the late 50s played the role of the dutiful wife & homemaker, they were far from fulfilled, but were bored & frustrated.

This gave women courage to abandon the traditional expectation of becoming a mother & pursue their own careers & independent lives.

what is a possible reason for the patriarchy?

• due to education - Mary Wollstonecraft → 1792 ‘A vindication of the Rights of women’ - argument for educating both women and men to same standard

what did Plato believe?

women were inferior to men

‘it is only males who are created directly by the Gods and given souls’

but did support the idea that women should be treated fairly and not be treated as possessions of men

→ even without Christianity, educated men have still impacted in the way society has historically seen gender

what did Aristotle state about women?

highly influential on Western thought

• ‘naturally’ inferior to men from his observations of society and therefore men have a right to rule women

• Aristotle did not know that women had eggs and argued that since men have semen they are active in reproduction and women are passive

→ what he has said has influenced societal view

how did Aristotle influence Aquinas?

• shows how Aristotle influenced Christianity

• women are inferior in physical strength and intelligence - we are defective

• however did say women have a special high place in heaven by the Virgin Mary

what denominations enable ordination of women?

cofe and methodist, mainly catholic church

• cofe argues that God calls people not gender

what does the Catholic church argue the role of women in the church is?

• a man is needed to give the body and blood of a man - cannot take on any role representing Christ

• christs disciples

• God choose Jesus to be a man not a women

blamed for perpetuating injustice by giving support to the idea women need not be treated as well as men

what are the issues with the second genesis story?

• Adam created first and stated that he is the ruler and steward over the animals

• male created first and women second from his rib as companion and ‘helper’ → an afterthought

however, rib is symbolic, showing they were equal

what does the fall say about gender roles?

woman first succumbed to temptation - belief that women are weaker willed than man, results in view men should take lead in decision making and should not be swayed by a women

• however, but couldn’t Adam just have said no

what is biblical patriarchy?

Bible cited as justification for the men having complete authority in the home

what is Christian Egalitarianism?

within marriage, husband and wife should be mutually respectful and supportive without dominating the other

what does MD say is the fulfilment of female personality?

virginity and motherhood

what is an issue with pregnancy in MD?

repeats the word ‘passive’ to describe pregnancy as something that happens rather than actively done and pain of childbirth is due to original sin but also gives insight into pain of Christ

• seems unjust that we have pain beacuse of Eve - in actuality it is beacuse of evolution

• women cannot be priests yet they experience the pain of christ on the cross possibly multiple times → women have deeper insight into the pain christ suffered but cannot be ordained

what is the significance in what time de Beauvoir wrote?

birth control was not readily available until 1974 for single women

• still relevant today - 12 states have banned abortion, all restricted by elderly congressmen