AQA History: British Empire 1850 - 1960

Overview of Empire 1857- 90

• Expansion of territory

• primary expansion within Africa, South East Asia + Pacific (e.g., Kenya, Uganda, India, etc.)

Why did “Empire swing to the East?”

• Change in imperial priority

• Shift in Empire from Political control to Economic dominance

• more desirable, lots of untouched land/ territory = an unlimited capacity to produce and trade items (e.g., fertile land)

• Strategic importance of territories (e.g., naval & trade access)

India 1857

• Religious diversity (Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism)

• British controlled territories - Costal, periphery

• Independent territories under Princely rule

• ONLY 2 main roads - British Territory, Northern India; coast/major cities: Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta

• Capital City, Calcutta - Eastern point of India

  • Threat of invasion posed by Russia

India - 1600

East India Company granted Royal Charter by Elizabeth I,

• arrived in India, developed trading areas in: Surat (1612), Madras (1640), Bombay (1661), Calcutta (1690)

India 1707

Last Mughal Emperor dies; creating power vacuum, which EIC attempt to fill

India 1757

British interest = Annexation of Bengal, brought under control by Clive of India via trade agreements with princes & monopolising trade

India 1773

East India Company forced to ask for help - Regulating Act granted (Governor General role created)

India 1784

Indian Board of Control created to supervise Indian affairs, formalise dual control (EIC/British Gov)

India 1800

Expansion of British rule within power vacuum, incl. Policy of Westernisation

India 1857

Indian Mutiny (First Indian War of Independence) broke out

Pax Britannica

Peace between Britain & India; promotion of an evangelical Christian rulership

“Fictional Sovereignty”

Indian rulers (maharajahs) felt as though they had control - but were at the mercy of EIC

Doctrine of Lapse

Policy of annexation of any Indian States by the EIC if the ruler was deemed incompetent/ died without an heir

1773 Regulating Act

Sought to monitor/ control the EIC & gave extraction rights

1784 India Act

Introduced Exchequer (Secretary of State), Curtailing power of EIC & increasing government dominance

1813 Charter Act

Britain's moral responsibility - outlawing cultural practices (E.g., Sati & Thugee)

How did Britain control India without full Government involvement?

• Civil Service

• Police

• Army

• Education

• Attitudes

Civil Service (pre-1857)

• Cornwallis → Gov Gen. 1786 (determined to purify corrupt admin)

• Raise salary of servants

  • top level of civil servants = British

  • lower level servants = some natives

Police (pre-1857)

• est. of separate police force

• Thanas (Police Station), Daroga (Inspectors)

• Loyal to Britain

  • Indians → British pawns created divisions in Society

  • British Rule → Strengthen formal systems of control

Army (pre-1857)

• EIC's army (Sepoys) recruited locally

• Only 3 Indians received 300rs Per Month; highest position equivalent to British Lieutenant

  • Indian members created division between Sepoys + British officers/ superiors

  • creates resentment/ lack of motivation & loyalty

• British rule = direct + control of Army

• ratio of British : Indian Soldiers in Army = 1 : 8

Education (pre-1857)

• School (formal education) was for Civil Servants; Fort Williams, Haileybury

• 1813 - duty to awaken Indians ‘from intellectual slumber’

• 1835 - promotion of Western education (e.g., intro English lessons, official language remained Urdu)

Attitudes (pre-1857)

• Christian missionaries spearheaded a movement for western ideals → legislated bans on ‘barbaric‘ cultural practices

• Conversations minimal → Brahmic caste system in society

• Caste system entrenched in land distribution system

• Revival of Hindu & Muslim fundamentalism

  • missionary impact felt in hospitals & schools

Significance of the Indian army

The army and sepoys were significant as they regarded their calling as being part of their faith; providing the foundation for British control.

Indian Mutiny, 1857

• rumour spread in the army; new gunpowder cartridges were sealed with beef/ pork gelatine.

  • caused uproar as the tops of the cartridges had to be bitten off, going against religious beliefs - offending sepoys

• May 1857; Sepoys mutiny - killing europeans + siege of Lucknow lasted 2-3 months & 2/3 of europeans died

British response to the Indian Mutiny

Disproportionate show of force and violence

• Massacre at Cawnpore

• Sepoys forced to lick blood of dead British soldiers

• Sepoys strapped to cannons

• Sepoys bodies hung along major roadsides

British view on Indian Mutiny

• Viewed as defiance of authority; religious war

• Events of 1857 villainise Indians as ‘savage creatures’, denounced all positives of natives

• Desired to seek revenge against Indians for mutinying

Indian view on Mutiny

• First Indian war of independence; Britain were oppressors, India acted in self-defense

British Attitudes Post-Mutiny

• Stories placed harsher emphasis on Indians' barbarianism & brutality; justifying imperial expansion & its necessity by use of propaganda

• The British continued to treat & consider Indians as 2nd class citizens; attempting to avoid contact with them as much ad possible (e.g., restricting opportunity for progression & maintaining racial superiority)

• Increasing tolerance of religions → Avoiding repeat of mutiny; protecting control over India, the ‘Jewel in the Crown'

Politics Post-Mutiny

• Introduction of 1858 Government of India Act

  • Abolished EIC, made Crown Rule official & introduced Secretary of State + Viceroy positions

• Build up to mutiny had been underestimated & animosity to EIC corruption rose

• Doctrine of Lapse removed → Gained loyalty of Indian princes as ‘puppets' to protect against rebellion

Economics Post-Mutiny

• Rise of cash crops → (e.g., tea, wheat), profit/ loss of Chinese tea market

• Indian textile industry collapsed → British textile industry given permanent foreign market

• Growth of Railways → Travel/ Railway imperialism = greater control

Social Post-Mutiny

• Education → 100s of Schools, 3 major universities (Calcutta, Bombay, Madras)

  • Westernisation of Indian ideals, creating social elite & strengthening civil service/ government

  • Only avaliable to higher classes (Literacy levels 1947; 17% literate)

• Recognition of the Caste system; pacifying unrest

  • No interference in cultural practices

  • Preserved as means of maintaining control, thorough hierarchical societal structure

Why was Britain interested in Egypt?

• Connected Africa to Middle East

• Held strategic importance → access to India

Lord Palmerston comment about Egypt; trade & economic access (1860)

‘We do not want to have Egypt' ‘We wish to trade through’

“Scramble for Africa”

• European countries viewd Africa as ‘free for the taking’

  • Diplomatic approach → Berlin Conference

  • Military conflict → Invasion, occupation & colonisation of African territory by European powers during the period between 1881 & 1914

What was the delay in expanding into Africa?

• Believed to be underdeveloped nicknamed ‘Dark Continent’ as Britain & Europe knew little about the continent

• Lack of maps/ geographical knowledge

• Lack of understanding civilisations

• Challenging terrain for travel → Sahara Desert, Jungle/ Rainforests

• Costal issues with transportation; ships & railways

• Disease → Yellow fever, Malaria, African sleeping sickness, Nagana (killed horses)

• Technology → Swords & Spears; Industrialised armies not in existence yet, Clipper ships (small gunboats) used instead

Motives of ‘Scramble for Africa'

Moral - Desire to bring end to slavery

European Power Rivalry - Stopping other European nations gaining power/ wealth within these areas

Economic - Capture the known resources of Gold & Rubber for European economies

Strategic/ Geopolitical - Strategic importance for trade routes → Egypt (Suez Canal), Sudan (Nile access), Cape of Africa

National Pride - The pride & desire towards expanding the Empire brought to a nation that can’t be overlooked as a cause.

Brussels Conference, 1876

→ Hosted by King Leopold of Belgium, motivated by desire to protect Belgian interests in Congo & concluded;

• Africans were incapable of developing natural resources forces in central Africa - deeming European intervention necessary

• Routes to Africa's great lakes needed to be developed by building roads & railways

• International African Association should be established to co-ordinate European efforts

  → conference heightened competition

Berlin Conference, 1884 - 85

→ Hosted by Otto von Bismarck, established;

• nations should be permitted to trade in the Basim of the Congo & its outlets

  • Free trade should be made available in these regions

• Powers taking possession of further land on African Coasts should notify signatories, to enable them to assert their own claims on basis of Effective Occupation

South Africa 1857 - 90

1867 - Discovery of Diamonds, Kimberly on the Vaal in West Griqualand - bordering Orange Free State → triggered diamond rush

1868 - British annexed Basutoland - claiming Africans desired protections

1871 - British took West Griqualand (Griquas establish E. Griqualand)

1874 - British annex East Griqualand

1875 - British federation proposed Boer territories & rejected

1877-78 - annexation of Transvaal, British troops provoked Xhosa war

1881 - British defeated at Majumba Hill (approx. 150 killed)

1884 - Britain fear Boer-German Alliance

1885 - British annex Bechuanaland

1886 - Gold discovered at Witwatersrand near Pretoria - gold rush

Egypt Pre-1850

Egypt was run as a modern private estate

• French involvement began

• Trading Cotton - 2/5 to Britain; invests (loaned) in railways, shipping, ports, education

Egypt 1850/60s

France began to pour money into Egypt

• 1863 - Egypt is in debt, £3 million + 7% interest

• 1880 - £100 milion + 20% interest

Egypt 1869

Ferdinand de Lesseps designed Suez Canal

• shortens route to India by 43%, by offering major trade route through Mediterranean & Red Sea

  • Controlled by Suez Canal Co. - owned by France, Turkish/Ottoman empire

Egypt 1875

Egypt on the brink of insolvency

• borrowing unchecked by internal government restraint, lead to bankruptcy

• Britain given control of customs, treasury, post office, etc.

• Disraeli buys 44% of Suez Canal shares for £4 million - made Britain largest stakeholder

Egypt 1878-9

Cave Report & Rescue Plan

• placed stringent financial control on economy

  • lead to deposition of Khedive by Ottoman Sultan

Egypt 1881 (Feb - Sep)

Rise of nationalist protests, led by Urabi Pasha

• foreign officials in army unpaid, full uprising with Pasha taking control of army

Egypt 1881 (Oct)

Anglo-French response to rise of Egyptian Nationalism

• Naval force sent in May as gesture of support to Ruler, to support keeping control of Suez Canal

Egypt 1882 (Jun)

Nationalist riot in Alexandria

• Europeans massacred

• Egyptians afraid of imminent occupation

  • death = 50 European; 170 Egyptian

Egypt 1882 (Jul - Aug)

Anglo-“French” response

• British show commitment to Egypt; sending in 24,000 Br troops + 7000 Indian soldiers

  • followed by 1883 Dufferin Report (advise taking political control, Investors panicked and put pressure on British intervention taking place)

• French troops refused to join armed proposal of military expedition

Egypt 1884

Establishment of Lord Cromer's administration of Egypt & end of Anglo-French control

• establishment of Veiled Protectorate

Sudan 1881

Ahmad proclaims himself as ‘Mahdi’ (saviour)

• Elobeid is invaded, ‘Golden age of Sudan'

Sudan 1882

Sudan Mahdist Revolution

• Khartoum siezed by Mahdists

• British send in General Hicks & Army to control rebellion

Sudan 1883

Anglo-Egyptian counter attack launched

• Loss of control of Sudan → British army withdraws (Hicks killed)

Sudan 1884

Gladstone orders the withdrawal of troops from Sudan under the supervision of Col. Charles Gordon

• Gordon ignores orders, attempts to retake Khartoum

  • killed and martyred, considered as ‘Evangelical Saviour’ for attempting to protect British Superiority

Sudan 1885

British troops are overrun = loss of control of Sudan

Railways (India)

15000km by 1880

allowed for railway imperialism to strengthen British control

South Africa - 1867

Discovery of Diamonds in Kimberly on the Vaal (near West Griqualand, bordering Orange Free State)

• Triggered diamond rush, attracting white settlers & Native Bantus (lead to investment & annexation)

South Africa - 1868

British annex Basutolan; claim indigenous Africans sought British protection against Boers

South Africa - 1871-4

• British take West Griqualand (1871)

• British annex East Griqualand

South Africa - 1875

Britain propose federation of British & Boer territories - rejected by Boers

South Africa - 1877

British annex Transvaal; to defend Boers from local tribes, Boers reluctantly accepted

South Africa - 1878/9

Xhosa War - British disarmed tribesmen & annexed the Cape

• (1878) BR troops instructed only to react defensively against Zulus

  • Ignored by Bartle Frere - deliberately provoked war against Zulus, 1000 soldiers killed at Isandhlwana = full-scale war

• (1879) Zulus defeated after 7 months of fighting

  • Total dead = 2400 British Soldiers

South Africa - 1880

Gladstone sacked Bartle Frere

• Boers declared republic (Dec, 1880)

  1. divided cabinet on wanting to accept & reverse annexation to agree on independent Transvaal or favour firm approach → discouraging rebels across empire

• British attacked by Boers across Transvaal, prior to announcement

South Africa 1881

British defeated at Majumba Hill

• 150 killed

• Britain force to sign Convention of Pretoria + recognise Boer self-government in Transvaal

• public wanted revenge, but Gladstone said the “unworthy emotion” should be put aside

South Africa 1884

German arrival in SW Africa

• Britain feared German-Boer Alliance

South Africa 1885

Annexation of Bechuanaland by British

• made north a protectorate & south a crown colony

South Africa 1886

Discovery of Gold at Witwatersrand near Transvaal (capital of Pretoria) - triggered gold rush

South Africa 1889 - 90

Cecil Rhodes, PM of the Cape

Imperial Successes - Gladstone's government

• Est. British Protectorate in Egypt, to protect interest in Suez Canal

• (1884 - 5) British involvement in Berlin Conference, creating order amongst powers over ‘Scramble for Africa

Imperial Successes - Disraeli’s government

• (1875) Disraeli purchase majority of holdings in Suez Canal shares from bankrupt Egypt - permanent strategic placement between Mediterranean and India

Imperial Failures - Gladstone's government

• (1881) First Boer War - defeat at Majumba, restoration of independence to Transvaal

• Sending General Gordon for evacuation of Egyptian garrison from Khartoum - tried to defend city & died = Gladstone received backlash

Imperial Failures - Disraeli’s government

• (1879) British Military defeated by Zulus at Isandhlwana

• (1879-80) Unsuccessful British campaign in Afghanistan

Approach towards Ireland - Gladstone's government

• Saw Ireland as a domestic issue, requiring domestic solution; led to devolved power & disputes over home rule, as it threatening integrity of Empire

Approach towards Ireland - Disraeli’s Government

• Opposed home rule as he thought it threatened integrity of Empire & believed Unionism and Imperialism were the future

Ideologial & Personal Motives - Gladstone's government

• Considered Britain's empire as satiated & main concerns should be over home affairs

• Outspoken & critical of Disraeli’s approach to imperialism & undermining of constitutional system within Britain

• Viewed Imperialism as positive, as it allowed the potential for their to be a larger community of sovereign states

Ideological & Personal Motives - Disraeli’s government

• (1852) Thought colonies were a drain on Britain’s resources; (1870) Claimed England was no longer ‘a mere European power’ is metropolis of a great maritime empire

• Accused Gladstone of wishing to break up Empire, through inappropriate measures of self-government, which would lead to irresponsibility, negligence and abandonment

• Used Empire to underpin values of Conservative party

Reaction to crisis/ opportunities - Gladstone's government

• Took additional control over acquisitions which began due to Disraeli’s initialization

• (1873) To deal with expansion + Russian interest within central Asia, Gladstone opted for negotiations of neutrality

Reaction to crisis/ opportunities - Disraeli’s government

• Claimed Credit for work set in place by Gladstone, but fully completed under his term

• To deal with Russian interest in expansion, he used Military action, which continued during Gladstone's return to power

• Aimed to develop commercial and strategic Empire, focusing on the East, linking imperial and foreign policies

Methods of influencing attitudes over Empire

• Newspapers

• Literature

• Schools and youth groups

• Work of Charles Darwin

• Imperial Exhibitions

Newspapers influenced attitudes

through the reporting in the growing popular press, which saw the value of stories of the erotic, heroism & national one-upmanship.

e.g. The British public feeling horrified by stories of massacres and tortures at Cawnpore, Reporting of Arabi Pasha’s revolt in Egypt

Literature influenced attitudes

through celebration & promotion of different aspects of Empire to its readers

e.g. H. Rider Haggard; King Solomon's mines, She, The Boy's Own Paper

Schools and Youth Groups influenced attitudes

Urging readers to lead ‘manly & Christian lives’, similar to rhetoric in school books, clubs & associations by reinforcing imperialist values

e.g. Boys own paper, Boys brigade

Work of Charles Darwin influenced attitudes

through the Origin of Species; people alluded that Natural Selection to also apply to human races, unintentionally reinforcing views of white (British) supremacy

e.g. Origin of Species (linked w/ disappearance of ‘weaker’ races; Maori, Aborigines, American Indians)

Imperial Exhibitions influenced attitudes

by reinforcing ideas of Victorian society’s physical & social superiority; through promotion and practical demonstration of industrial development, technology and arts/ wealth occuring within Empire

e.g. 1862 International Exhibition, 1886 Colonial & Indian Exhibition, 1890 African Exhibition

How did the British consolidate their control of Africa?

• Strategic (Egypt in Suez Canal)

• Economic (Profit)

• Moral (Racial Superiority)

• European Rivalry (German, France)

Egypt 1895

Salisbury becomes PM; re-conquers Sudan, concerned over other countries surrounding (European Rivalry) → Called Sudan ‘Unprofitable’

Egypt 1896

• Italian forces defeated; uses excuse to attempt taking Abyssinia and campaign to invade Sudan → it calls public aid to Italy & uphold European civilisation

• Appointment of Kitchener as Commander-in-Chief of Egyptian army → tries to take Dongala & Khartoum

Egypt 1897

• French expedition led up the Nile by Marchand

• Kitchener faces Sudanese at Omduman → massacre of 27000 Sudanese ansars + looting Khartoum, MPs opposed paying Kitchener for Sudanese massacre

Egypt 1899

• Kitchener ordered to go against Marchand in Fashoda → Extra massacre

• Anglo-Egyptian Sudan established under a British Govenner General

Cape Colony 1867

Economic interest in South African diamonds discovered in Grimsby

Cape Colony 1871 - 91

• Huge investment

• Exports of £9.5M per year

• 2000m railway constructed

Cape Colony 1879

Frere & Shepstone led war against Zulus; Won at poor cost → £4.9M spent, 17000 reinforcements sent

Cape Colony 1880

Bartle Frere sacked & replaced by Wolsey

Cape Colony 1880 - 81

Boer rebellion against what they realised was a permenant state of control → Defeat of British, led to Convention of Pretoria

Cape Colony 1880 - 90

Period of Boer expansion, increased power in region

Cape Colony 1886

• Discovery of Gold → ¼ world's gold supplies

• Economic shift away from Cape to Transvaal = £8M revenue (richest government in Africa)

Cape Colony 1891

Cecil Rhodes establishes BSAC & begins monopoly on diamonds

Cape Colony 1893

Raid led by the King of Mashonaland, on villages near British settlements

Cape Colony 1893 - 94

First Matabele war against British control

Cape Colony 1894 - 95

Fear of German intervention & control in Transvaal region → due to creating connection to the sea, where German ships were with support

Jameson Raid 1895 (Dec)

Raid carried out by Dr Jameson (w/ the backing of Cecil Rhodes) from British Rhodesia w/ help of English Uitlanders in Rhodesia/ Bechuanaland (Response to British fear of German expansion)

No official government support was given - expected to start an uprising, but lacked support of natives due to being blocked by Transvaal soldiers