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NA,K,Ca ions conc. in ICF and ECF respectively
Cl,HCO3,Proteins conc. in ICF and ECF respectively
total body water in an adult man ?
woman ?
infant ?
old age ?
in adult men 60%
in adult women 50%
in infants more than 70%
in old age 45%
if the ECF amount is 14 litre its composed of ?
9.5 L interstitial fluid
3.5 liter plasma
1 liter transcellular fluid
2 examples of nega. feedbacks
and 2 examples of positive feedback
which one is more common ?
ممكن تقول الاسم بس لو فاهمه وهكتبه الامثله متفصله للتسهله
negative feedback :
1-(↑ CO2 (stimulus) → hyperventilation (response) → washout of excess
CO2 → ↓ CO2 to normal
2-↑ arterial blood pressure (ABP) (stimulus) → reflex vasodilatation and
↓ heart rate (response) → ↓ arterial blood pressure back to normal
positive feedback :
1-Death cycles→ fatal cycles leads to death
• In heart failure → decreased cardiac output (stimulus) → decreased
arterial blood pressure → decreased coronary blood flow (response) →
more heart failure
2-Some positive feedback cycles are useful
e.g. during labour:
• During delivery of the baby, the dilatation
of the cervix (stimulus) → increases the
uterine contractions→ descent of baby →
more cervical dilatation → more uterine
contractions (response) → more descent of
baby, till complete labor
.
.
.
negative feedback is the most common type of feedback
cell membrane thickness
7-9 nm
enumerate the components of cell membrane with % of each
42% lipids
55% proteins
3% carbohydrates
name the 3 types of cell membrane lipids
and the 2 types of cell membrane proteins
cell membrane lipids
1- phospholipids
2- cholesterol
3- glycolipids
cell membrane proteins
1-integral proteins
2-peripheral proteins
compare between integral and peripheral proteins
compare between the 3 types of ion channels
name the 3 types of diffusion and mention the 2 mechanisms of simple diffusion
1- simple diffusion
2-facilitated diffusion
3-osmosis (water only)
Mechanisms:
a) Through lipid interstices e.g. transport of lipid
soluble substances e.g. O2 and CO2 through cell
membrane
b) Through ion channels e.g. transport of ions such
as Na and K+
compare between simple diffusion,facilitated diffusion and active transport
what is ficks law
متقولش الاسم بس قول كل واحد يعني اي
describe the action of NA-K pump and how much energy does it utilize
• It transports 3 Na+ ions from ICF to ECF and 2 K+ ions from ECF to ICF.
• This maintains low intracellular Na and high intracellular K.
• It utilizes about 40% - 50% of energy
what is primary active transport and its types ? 3
obtain its energy directly from the hydrolysis of ATP e.g.
Na-K Pump, Ca ATPase,
H-K ATPase
what is secondary active transport and its types ? 2
use the energy stored in the Na concentration gradient
e.g.
Na-glucose co-transport and Na-Ca exchange
compare between the 3 types of endocytosis
name and examples
examples of exycytosis
Release of hormones, digestive enzymes,
and synaptic transmitters
what are the 3 types of intercellular connection
1-tight junction (zonula occludens) APICAL BORDER OF THE CELL
2-desmosomes (zonula adherens)
HEMIDESMOSOMES AND FOCAL ADHESION ATTACH CELLS TO THEIR BASAL LAMINAS
3-gap junction
compare between the tight and gap junction (definition, site and structure)
compare between the function of tight and gap junctions
mention the 4 types of intercellular communication and compare between them
what are the 3 stages of cell signaling
and what are the 2 types of cell receptors
1-reception
2-transduction
3-response
.
1-intracellular receptors
2-cell surface receptors
discuss the intracellular receptors
يهمني تعرف انواع ال intracellular
والفرق بين النوعين
discuss the cell surface receptors
and what are the 3 main types of membrane receptors
p71
1-ligand gated ion channel receptors
2-G protein coupled receptors
3- tyrosine kinase receptors (enzyme linked receptors)
discuss ligand gated ion channels
فسيولوجي بقا
discuss G-protein coupled receptors
describe tyrosine kinase receptor (enzyme linked receptor)
example of ligand gated ion channel
cholinergic nicotinic receptors
example of G protein coupled receptors
alpha and beta adrenoceptors
example of enzyme linked receptor
insulin receptor
example of intracellular receptors
steroid receptors and thyroid receptor
in g protein coupled receptor alpha subunit interact with ? whose activation forms ?
adenyl cyclase
or phospholipase C in the cell membrane
o Activation of an enzyme causes excessive
production of 2nd messengers inside the
cells such as cAMP (by adenyl cyclase), IP3
and DAG (by phospholipase C)
in G protein coupled receptor
adenyl cyclase is activates ?
phospholipase c activates
which do what ????
cAMP (by adenyl cyclase),
IP3 and DAG (by phospholipase C)
THEY PRODUCE INTRACELLULAR RESPONSE
types of neuroglial cells
in CNS ?
in PNS ?
in CNS : astrocyte,oligodendrocyte,microglia,ependymal cells
in PNS : satellite,schwann cells
pnsالاتنين اللي في ال
sبيبداو ب
astrocyte cells function
a type of neuroglial cells in CNS
maintain extracellular environment , remove excess neurotransmitter , direct neural growth , induce blood brain barrier in CNS
satellite cells function
a type of neuroglial cells in PNS
maintain extracellular environment , remove excess neurotransmitter , direct neural growth
oligodendrocyte cells function ?
a type of neuroglial cell in CNS
they create myelin
schwann cells function ?
a type of neuroglial cells in PNS
they create myelin
microglia cell function ?
a type of neuroglial cells in CNS whose function is
immune surveillance and phagocytosis
ependymal cells function ?
a type of neuroglial cells in CNS
create and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
structure of neuron ?
1- cell body
2- axon
3-dendrites
4- presynaptic terminals
مش ستايل كارت اوي بس مهمه فشخ اوعي تفوتها
وصف ال myelin sheaths & schwan sheaths
the axon terminals make junction with 3 ?
and explain each
i) Dendrites or cell body of another neuron to form neuroneural junction or synapse
ii) Muscle fibers to form neuromuscular junction
iii) Secretory gland to form neuroepithelial junction
types of neurons physiologically and histologically (mention examples of each respectively)
physiological types :
sensory,interneurons,motor neurons
histological types :
bipolar,unipolar,multipolar
resting membrane potential in
nerves
skeletal muscles
cardiac muscles
smooth muscles
o Nerves: -70 mV.
o Skeletal muscles: -90 mV.
o Cardiac muscle: -90 mV.
o Smooth muscles: -60 mV.
goldman hodgkin katz equation is for ?
and it is ?
what is the distribution of ions inside and outside the cell for
Na
K
Cl
respectively
• ECF: ICF ratio for Na+ ions is 10: 1
• ECF: ICF ratio for K+ ions is 1: 35
• ECF: ICF ratio for Clions is 25: 1
comparison between permeability of cell membrane to K and Na ions
(the cell membrane is 100 times more
permeable to K ions than for Na ions.)
what inhibits the Na-K pump and what does this inhibition lead to ?
Any condition decreases the metabolic activity of
the cell
e.g. by cooling will inhibits
Na-K pump
so, Na+ ions will accumulate inside the cell and neutralize the -ve charges of protein ions -K ions that held on the outer surface escape away, and RMP becomes progressively lost
What forces contribute to the resting membrane potential, and what is the percentage of each force?
• 90-95 % of RMP is a passive
process due to diffusion of ions
thorough leak ion channels
• 5-10% of RMP is active process
due to the electrogenic Na-K
pump i.e. about 4-5 mV
firing level which lead to opening of al Na channels ?
-55 mV
hyperpolarization ?
K ions continue to diffuse to outside due to delayed
closure of its channels leading to hyperpolarization
monophasic recording of action potential consists of 3 parts
1-latent period
2-spike potential
3-after potential
latent period is ? caused by ?? duration affected by ??? importance ????
Def
• Is the time between the stimulation of the nerve
(marked by stimulus artifact) and the start of the
action potential.
Cause:
• Represents the time taken by the impulse to
travel from the site of stimulation to the site of
recording electrodes
Duration Is affected by:
1. The distance between the stimulating and recording electrodes.
2. The velocity of conduction of the nerve fibers Importance:
• Used to calculate the velocity of conduction of
a nerve fiber
steps of monophasic recording of action potential
دا مش سؤال خد بصه عالبتاع بس
compate between the 2 after potenntial waves ?
action potential is initiated in ? propagates where ?
Action potential is initiated at the initial segment
(axon hillock) and propagates
along the axon down to the terminal ending
compare between the 2 types of propagation of action potential
speed of conduction of action potential depends on what and what happens in multiple sclerosis disease
speed of conduction of action
potential depends upon the degree of
myelination
.
In multiple sclerosis, loss of myelin sheaths
causes decrease in conduction velocity
orthodromic vs anntidromic conduction propagation direction ?
describe the absolute refractory period
and its mechanism
and its signnificance
• During this period the excitability of nerve
fibers is completely lost i.e. no other stimulus,
no matter how strong will excite the nerve.
• It corresponds to the upstroke of depolarization
and early part of rapid repolarization
Mechanism
i. During upstroke all voltage gated Na+ channels are opened
ii. During rapid repolarization, inactivation gates
of the Na+ channel (h gates) are closed and they
remain closed until repolarization occurs Significance of ARP:
1. It limits the No. of impulses that can be initiated and propagated by the nerve fibers
2. Allow the conduction of nerve impulse in one direction, because the repolarized area or node is still in refractory period, so the resting area respond to the local currents and depolarize and so on
بصراحه مش عايز اشيل كلمه منها معلش
describe the relative refractory period and its mechanism
The excitability of the nerve fibers during this period is partially recovered and the nerve respond to stimuli of higher intensity
• It begins at the end of the absolute refractory period and continues until the membrane potential returns to the resting level.
.
Mechanism:
• During this period, the K+ conductance (current)
is higher than at rest, so strong stimuli are
required to make more inward current (Na+ current) to bring the membrane to threshold
compare between local excitatory state (graded potential) and nerve impulse (action potential)
points :
amplitude , summation , threshold , refractory period , conduction , duration , nature.
compare between tybe A,B,C nerve fiber
myelination , site , diameter , nerve impulse , speed , sensitivity , subtype ?
name the 3 physical factors and their effect on excitability and conductivity of nerve fibers
i) Warming →↑es the excitability and conductivity by
increasing the kinetics of ions leading to rapid
depolarization and repolarization
ii) Cooling →↓es the excitability and conductivity
b) Mechanical:
• Deep pressure ↓es the excitability and conductivity of
type A nerve fibers
examples of anesthetic drugs and what is their effect on excitability of nerve fibers (what do they block)
caine اي حاجه اخرها
cocaine, novocaine and xylocaine
→ block Na channels and prevent depolarization, so decrease the excitability of nerve fibers
2 examples of neurotoxins and what are their effect on excitability and conductivity of nerve fibers ?
1. Tetrodotoxin block Na channels, so prevent depolarization
2. Tetraethylammonium (TEA) block K channels, so prevent repolarization
Ca ions effect on nerve excitability ?
Na ions effect on nerve excitability ?
K ions effect on nerve excitability ?
wtf is anelectrotonus ?
wtf is catelectrotonus ?
causes of nerve block ? 7
1- thermal (by severe cooling)
2- mechanical (by deep pressure)
3- local anaesthetic drugs
4- increased Ca ions
5- decreased Na ions
6- decreased K ions
7- by strong anaelectrotonus
explain multiple sclerosis ?
• It is an autoimmune disease that affects persons between the ages of 20 and 50
and affecting women about twice as often as men
• It is due to both genetic and environmental factors
• In MS, autoantibodies attack myelin, causing inflammation and injury to the
sheath and eventually the nerves that it surrounds
rest of multiple sclerosis
• Signs include muscle weakness, fatigue, diminished coordination, slurred speech, blurred or hazy vision, bladder dysfunction, and sensory disturbances • All signs and symptoms are due to reduction in conduction velocity due to ; 1. ↓ Myelin → ↓ membrane resistance → causes current leaks out during electrotonic conduction, so current decays and velocity decreases 2. Leak of K ions through voltage gated K channels → K efflux → hyperpolarization of the cell membrane →↓ conduction velocity • Usually treated with steroids to suppress the immune system and decrease antibodies formation
units of measurement oof pressure are ?
mmHg and Cm H2O (1 mmHg = 1.36 cm H2O = 1330 dynes/cm2)
hydrostatic pressure law is ?
how much does pressure rise for each 1 cm down
vascular distensibility is ? law ?
veins distensibility in relation to arteries ?
pulmonary artery distensibility in relation with pulmonary vein ?
blood pressure in pulmonary circulation in relation to that in systemic circulation ?
veins are 6-10 times more distensible
pulmonary artery has distensibility 1/2 those of pulmonary veins
blood pressure in pulmonary circulation is 1/6 of those in systemic circulation
vascular compliance is ?
law ?
a highly compliant vessel vs a non compliant vessel?
compliance of a vein in relation to its corresponding artery ?
the compliance of a vein is about 24 times of its corresponding artery
how does the following affect compliance (respectively)
sympathetic nervous system
hormonees
vessel wall
blood flow law (ohm's law)
the poiseuille equation
p178
what are the 3 direct methods for blood flow measurement
1- electromagnetic flowmeter
2- ultrasonic flowmeter or dopler US
3- venous occlusion plethysmography
indirect method of measurement of blood flow
compare between laminar blood flow and turbulent blood flow
blood velocity law and cross sectional area of capillaries in relation to aorta
nerve cell is ?
number ?
structure ?
types of neurons are 3 ?
1. Afferent (sensory) neuron→ carries impulses from
receptors to CNS.
2. Efferent (motor) neuron→ carries impulses from CNS to effector organs.
3. Interneuron (associative)
→located entirely within CNS
pathway of the reflex action 5 ?
types of reflex action 2 ?
pathway :
1-sensory receptor
2-sensory neuron
3-interneuron
4-motor neuron
5-effector organ
.
types of reflex actions are classified according to effector organ into
1-autonomic reflexes (smooth muscles)
2-somatic reflexes (skeletal muscles)
PNS nerves are 2 types ? and their number ?
1. Cranial nerves → 12 pairs
2. Spinal Nerves → 31 pairs
(each pair arises from each
segment of spinal cord)
SPINAL NERVES ARE MIXED NERVES CONSISTS OF
1- AFFERENT (SENSORY) NERVES
2- EFFERENT (MOTOR) NERVES
REST OF DATA MENTIONED BEFORE
compare between somatic and autonomic N.S
control ?
connections ?
center ?
compare between the motor nerve fibers of somatic and autonomic N.S
compare between somatic and autonomic NS about
effect of denervation and chemical transmitters
ANS is subdivided into ?
A. Sympathetic (thoracolumbar) NS
B. Parasympathetic (craniosacral) NS
sympathetic N.S origin ?
Sympathetic N.S.(thoracolumbar) :
• LHCs of
1. All thoracic segments
2. Upper 3 lumbar segments of the spinal cord
parasympathetic N.S origin ?
Parasympathetic (craniosacral ) :
A) Cranial part:
1.Oculomotor N. in midbrain.
2.Facial N. in pons.
3.Glossopharyngeal N. in MO.
4.Vagus nerve in MO.
B) Sacral part:
• S2,S3,S4 and forms pelvic nerve
ganglia are ?
function ?
types 3 ?
Def.,
• Are collection of cell bodies of neurons outside the central nervous system (CNS)
Functions:
• Act as a relay station for autonomic preganglionic nerve fibers
• Act as distributing center:
sympathetic : preganglionic to postganglionic = 1: 32
parasympathetic: preganglionic to postganglionic = 1: 2
.
types :
1-lateral (paravertebral) ganglia
2-collateral (prevertebral) ganglia
3-terminal ganglia
describe the (lateral ganglia)
(Paravertebral) ganglia:
• Located on either side of the spinal cord
• About 22-24 ganglia on each side
• Form 2 rows of sympathetic chain of ganglia
• Act as a relay station for preganglionic sympathetic N. fibers only
describe collateral ganglia
(Prevertebral) ganglia:
• Present mainly in the abdomen, midway between spinal
cord and viscera
• Act as a relay station for sympathetic preganglionic N. fibers
describe terminal ganglia
• Present close to or at the wall the effector organs especially
rectum, urinary bladder and reproductive organs in the
pelvis
• Act as a relay station of:
a) All parasympathetic preganglionic fibers
b) Some sympathetic preganglionic fibers