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What did acts change?
Various reform Acts passed 1832-1928 changed, sometimes dramatically, British electoral system.
Were also responsible for long-term changes in power + influence of both executive + legislature.
What did the crown exercise in 1780?
In 1780, Crown exercised sig. executive powers within political system.
What weakened that power?
Parl. reforms gradually weakened that power.
What powers of the monarchy couldn’t be maintained with increasing representational parl?
William IV (r1830-37) and Queen Victoria (r1837-1901) found that trad. royal prerogatives of appointing + dismissing ministers, + whole govts, could not be maintained within an increasingly representative parl.
What happened to elections after 1841?
From 1841, it was outcome of G.E.s that decided which party would take office.
Who dominated pol. life in 1780?
Trad. aristocracy dominated pol life in both HoLs and HoCs in 1780.
When did this influence wane?
During 19th C, this influence over HoCs waned, as more middle-class + working-class men (+ women from 1918) were elected to parl.
When was power of HofL challenged?
Power of HoLs in legislative process was challenged in early 20th C, + the Parl Act 1911 removed their veto powers over legislation.
Where can most sig. changes be seen?
Most sig. changes of all can be seen in development of
pol. parties.
Aristocratic in both composition + outlook in late 18th C, they were compelled to reform + adapt to new electoral system.
Who is most successful party
Tory Party, after some early setbacks, managed change with considerable success, + since 1874 Cons. Party has been most successful electoral machine in country.
When did Whigs control parliament?
Whigs controlled govt + parl. life for most of 18th + early 19th Cs.
When did Whigs combine with liberals?
They found it difficult to adapt to new electoral landscape, + in 1859 united with Liberals and Peelites to form Liberal Party.
Who created the basic welfare state?
Under Gladstone + his successors, Liberals passed number of important social + political reforms, + in years before 1914 were responsible for creation of basic welfare state.
When did liberals split?
Liberals split during WW1 between supporters of Asquith + Lloyd George.
When did Lloyd George resign?
Lloyd George resigned as PM in 1922, + Liberalism as a pol. creed was unable to cope with ideology of rising Lab.Party.
When did liberal party return to office?
Some Liberal ministers served briefly in national govts of 1930s, but it was not until formation of coalition govt in 2010 that party as whole returned to office.
When were many working men enfranchised?
Many working-class men were enfranchised by 3rd Reform Act in 1884.
What were these enfranchised working men interested in?
Most of them supported Liberal Party, + they were more interested in trade union activity than in forming pol. movement that would promote specifically working-class interests.
How many working class candidates elected 1892?
In election of 1892 3 working-class candidates, including Keir Hardie, were elected as independent Lab MPs.
When was the ILP formed?
In 1893, Independent Lab Party was founded, + it went on to form nucleus of Lab. Party, created in 1906.
When was labour 2nd biggest party?
By 1922, Lab. had become 2nd largest party in parl, replacing Liberals as main challenger to Cons Party.
When did labour take office?
In 1924, Lab. took office for 1st time, as minority govt.
When did Whigs emerge?
Whigs emerged as pol. group in 1680s when they opposed succession of Catholic James Stuart to throne.
When did Whigs dominate politics?
They dominated politics 1715-60, but lost influence during years of Pitt's supremacy in 1780s + 1790s.
When did Whigs return to power?
They returned to power in 1830 as champions of parl. reform.
Who were Whigs a group of?
Whigs were always close-knit group of aristocratic families, + found it impossible to survive alone in age of pop. involvement in politics.
Who were Whigs the founding members of and when did they break from Gladstone?
They were founding members of Liberal Party in 1859, but broke with Gladstone in 1886 over Irish Home Rule.
When did the last remnants of the Whig faction merge?
Last remnants of Whig faction merged into Salisbury's Cons. Party in 1890s.
When did George III come to throne ?
1760
How did George III upset established conventions?
His Hanoverian predecessors, George I (r1714-27) + George II (r1727-60) spoke v. little English, + had been content to leave govt in hands of their Whig ministers.
George IlI, however, upset established conventions because he was keen to play active role in govt.
What happened as result of king’s involvement?
As result of king's involvement in political affairs, 1760s was decade of pol. instability, as king ignored views of parl. by appointing ministers who could not claim support of HoC.
When was Lord North appointed?
This experiment in royal govt proved impossible to sustain, + in 1770, king appointed Lord North as PM, politician who could count on support of HoC.
What was Crown’s influence not confined to?
However, Crown's influence in govt + parl. was not confined to direct royal involvement in govt.
When did system of patronage develop?
Since 1714, large network of patronage had developed, which was used by monarchs + their ministers to ensure loyalty of individual MPs.
Financial incentives, especially sinecures + generous pensions, were lavished on individuals in order to secure support for govt of day.
When were new avenues of patronage opened up?
These practices were increased sig. by George IlI + North, + whole new avenues of patronage were opened up during Britain's war against American colonies from 1775.
When was aristocratic influence over elections substantial?
In late 18th C, aristocratic influence over elections, + over HoC, was substantial.
Were social compositions of HofL and HofC similar?
HoL + HoC were 2 branches of legislature, but social composition of both was v. similar.
Head of an aristocratic family sat in HoL, while his male siblings + sons often sat in HoC, arrangement that survived well into 19th C.
How did aristocracy have influence over elections?
Most of aristocracy were v. large landowners, with substantial estates scattered throughout country.
With land came wealth & influence, & many peers deployed both in order to give them control over elections to HoC.
Where was aristocratic influence strongest?
Their influence was felt most strongly in counties, whose electors often cast their votes for local aristocrat's preferred candidate, either through habit of deference or because they feared repercussions if they voted for another candidate.
How did aristocracy have influence over smaller boroughs?
In smaller boroughs, aristocracy could deploy substantial sums of money among small number of voters to ensure election of chosen candidate.
What did strength of aristocracy reflect?
Strength of aristocracy in late 18th + early 19th Cs is reflected in composition of cabinets of time.
How many from HofC in Pitt’s cabinet?
In Pitt's 1st period of govt from 1783-94, his cabinet included just 3 members of HoC against 9 members of HoL.
How many in Grey’s?
When Grey formed his ministry in 1830, which was to pass Reform Act, once again, there were only 3 MPs.
Was this influence normal?
For most politicians, dominance of aristocracy in both HoL + HoC was regarded as normal state of affairs.
When did opposition to patronage grow?
By late 1770s, opposition to use of patronage by Crown + govt was growing outside parl.
When did American war break out?
American war had broken out in 1775, + was to have profound effect on British politics.
Who were given govt. contracts for American war?
Whole swathe of govt contracts were issued for ships, uniforms, arms + provisions, + these were usually granted to favoured suppliers, at substantial cost to govt's finances.
Why were taxes increased?
To pay for war
What type of taxes rose?
Property + business taxes rose, + there was widespread opposition from landed gentry in counties to rising tax on land.
How much did land tax raise by?
Land tax, based on value of individual landholdings, was set at 2 shillings in pound for most of 18th C.
Cost of war, + requirement to pay interest on burgeoning national debt, led to tax of 4 shillings in 1779.
Why was there opposition to North’s govt?
Was combination of rising taxation + widespread royal + govt patronage that stimulated extra-parl opposition to North's govt.
What was the Yorkshire Association?
In 1779, Rev. Christopher Wyvill inspired formation of Yorkshire Association, which was supported by county's gentry + landowners, + was soon imitated in several other counties.
What did associations campaign for?
Associations campaigned for maj. reductions in both taxation + govt spending.
How did associations believe these objectives could be achieved?
They believed that both these objectives could be achieved, in part, by substantial reduction in network of Crown + govt patronage.
How did associations believe patronage could be reduced?
More ominously for govt, several associations believed patronage could only be reduced by parl. reform, + promoted universal suffrage as remedy against corruption.
What did petitioning movement grow out of?
in 1779-80, petitioning movement grew out of association counties, with petitions presented to parl demanding reduction in number of posts that were at Crown's disposal.
Who did Yorkshire association have close links with?
Yorkshire Association established close links with Rockingham Whigs, who were most influential opposition group in HoC.
Who was one of Rockingham’s leading supporters?
1 of Rockingham's leading supporters was E. Burke, who would become 1 of primary opponents of French Rev. in 1790s.
What reform did Burke present 1780?
In 1780, Burke presented reform plan to HoC that reflected demands of associations in Yorkshire + other counties.
Burke attacked high expenditure that went on maintaining royal court, especially number of royal sinecures.
What are examples of royal sinecures?
Offices such as Groom of Stole + Groom of Wardrobe were simply honorary titles, though profitable, + Burke reserved particular contempt for office of royal turnspit.
This post, supposedly involving roasting of joints of meat for royal dining table, was held by MP.
What would Burke’s reform project lead to?
Burke's reform project, he claimed, would lead to substantial reduction in expenditure, + would enable govt to reduce taxes accordingly.
What did Burke believe economic reform would weaken?
He also believed economic reform would weaken growing demands for parl reform.
What did Burke favour: reform or innovation?
Burke was long-standing champion of existing electoral system + favoured reform rather than widespread innovations.
What would Burke’s absolution of patronage lead to?
He felt that abolition of Crown + govt patronage would lead to revival of independence of individual MPs, + thus make parl. reform unnecessary.
This explains why his scheme of economic reform was entitled 'A bill for the better security of the independence of parl.'.
Were these reforms of Burke successful?
Burke presented wide-ranging bill for economic reform in March 1780, but was unable to secure its passage through HoC.
What became important feat of Rockingham Whigs' programme?
Reform had become important feat of Rockingham Whigs' programme.
When did Dunning secure passage of 2 motions?
In April, Whig MP Dunning secured passage of 2 motions in HoC, calling for reduction of royal influence over HoC.
Whigs were unable to capitalise on their success, but Dunning's motions showed growing unease felt by many MPs about influence of Crown in country's political life.
When did Burke carry out some reforms?
Burke carried out some reforms when he was appointed paymaster in Rockingham's short-lived govt of March to July 1782.
What could paymaster of armed forces do?
Paymaster of armed forces held substantial sums of money for long periods, + could use their profits for his own benefit.
What did Burke do with paymasters funds?
Burke could have enriched himself, but he ended practice by placing all paymaster's funds into Bank of England, + setting paymaster's salary at £4,000 a year.
What was the civil service act?
He followed this measure with Civil Service Act, which abolished over 130 royal + govt sinecures, saving in process over £70,000 a year.
Did Burkes campaigns have any achievements?
Burke's campaigns against institutional corruption had some achievements to their credit, + established his own reputation as cautious reformer.
When did Rockingham die?
Rockingham's death in July 1782 ended his short time in office, but he had established poss. of reform + paved way for future changes carried out by Pitt.
What did Pitt have to tackle when became PM?
When Pitt became PM in Dec. 1783, he had to tackle number of issues that he inherited from North's time in office.
What caused collapse of Yorkshire Assoc. and what was MP response?
Fall of North's govt in 1782, + end of American war in 1783, contributed to collapse of Yorkshire Association + similar bodies, but Whigs + many independent MPs continued their attacks on corruption + govt extravagance.
Did Pitt also aim to reduce patronage?
Like Burke, Pitt was prepared to take some action to reduce patronage + sinecures, but he did so more out of desire for administrative efficiency than for ideological reasons.
What was Pitt’s main aim of PM?
Pitt's main aim as PM was to bring national finances under control.
What was Pitt forced to reform?
American war had led to maj increase in size of national debt, so Pitt was forced to reform govt administration in order to reduce costs.
Why was Pitt cautious in reducing sinecures?
He moved cautiously in reducing sinecures because he realised that it would be difficult to tackle wide range of vested interests head-on.
When did Pitt reduce sinecures?
Instead of abolishing sinecure posts outright, he waited until office holder died + then allowed position to lapse.
This approach was painfully slow for many of his supporters, but by time of his death in 1806 a large number of offices had vanished.
Were Pitt’s actions important?
Yes
Why was North maintained in office?
In 1770s, George Ill had been able to maintain North in office by widespread use of sinecures + pensions.
By 1800, this was no longer possible.
What would minsters have to rely on w/o sinecures?
Henceforth, ministers would have to rely increasingly on support of parl if they were to remain in office.
What did economic reform eliminate?
The process of economic reform had been fairly successful in eliminating the worst feature of corruption in government, but many sinecures and pensions remained in existence long after 1800.
What did Cobbett attack in 1819?
In 1819, for example, Cobbett, with his usual journalistic flair, attacked both the economic reformers and Burke in a single article. Cobbett notes that pensions often outlived their recipients.
What did economic reform do to the influence of the Crown?
Economic reform since 1782 had contributed to the declining influence of the Crown over the HofC, a process that was accelerated after 1810 by the fading mental powers of George Ill.
What did the 1832 reform act do to monarchs?
The Reform Act 1832 was especially important in reducing the influence of successive monarchs over parliament as a whole.
Who did the govt. rely on pre 1832?
Before 1832, govts relied on the favour of the monarch, and the huge amount of Crown patronage that they could use to secure the support of MPs.
Why was the scope for royal involvement reduced?
With economic reform reducing Crown patronage, and parliamentary reform fostering the development of clearly defined parties, the scope for royal involvement in govt was considerably reduced.
Who won the 1832 general election?
The Whigs and their allies won the GE of 1832 with a substantial majority, and it was widely expected that they would provide stable govt for several years.
Why was Melbourne dismissed?
In 1834, however, William IV, who was worried about the Whigs' proposals for reforms to the Irish Church, dismissed the PM, Lord Melbourne, and invited Peel to form a govt.
Why did peel request parliament be dissolved?
Since Peel's Conservatives held only 175 seats, he asked for an immediate dissolution of parliament.
How many seats did the Cons. get in Jan 1835?
In the election of Jan 1835, the Cons. added 100 seats to their number, but this was not sufficient to allow for the formation of a stable govt.
Who returned to office?
Peel resigned and Melbourne returned to office
What were the events 1834-5 a demonstration of?
The events of 1834-35 were a convincing demonstration of the effects of the Reform Act on the political world.
What had George III done with patronage funds?
In 1783, George IlI had taken the initiative in dismissing the Fox-North coalition, had granted Pitt a dissolution in 1784, and had supported his young minister with all the patronage funds at his disposal.
What position was William IV in?
Economic reform had reduced the Crown's influence over the HofC, placing William IV in a less fortunate position.
What choice was presented after the reform act?
Elections after the Reform Act presented the electorate with a clear choice in most constituencies between Whigs and Conservatives, making It easier to discern which party had gained a majority of seats.
What could the monarch no longer choose?
William IV and his successors could no longer choose a PM if he could not rely on a parliamentary majority in the HofC
When did Victoria come to the throne?
Victoria came to the throne in 1837 at the age of 18.
