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Ralph Waldo Emerson
Prominent 19th-century American essayist and philosopher, central figure in the transcendentalist movement.
His essay Self-Reliance (1841) advocates for individualism and the importance of personal intuition, asserting that people should trust their inner voice rather than follow societal norms or external validation.
shaping the nation's cultural emphasis on independence, nonconformity,
Self-Reliance
Emerson's essay advocating for individualism and the importance of personal intuition.
Rendezvous System
A key trading method in the American fur trade involving annual gatherings for fur exchange.
played a crucial role in the economic development of the American West,
helping expand westward exploration.
The rendezvous system facilitated interactions between diverse groups
George Catlin
American painter known for his portraits of Native American life in the 1830s and 1840s.
Catlin’s work is significant because it provided one of the earliest and most comprehensive visual records of Native American cultures
raising awareness of the challenges Native Americans faced during the era of westward expansion.
Black Forties
A term referring to the 1840s, marked by economic instability and a surge of Irish immigration due to the Great Irish Famine.
increased tension between native-born Americans and immigrants, with issues of job competition and cultural integration sparking nativist sentiments
Forty-Eighters
European political refugees, mainly from Germany, who fled to the U.S. after the failure of the 1848 revolutions.
key role in shaping labor movements, education, and political activism, and were influential in the growing anti-slavery sentiment
Nativism / Know-Nothing Party
Nativism: the political ideology prioritizing interests of native-born inhabitants over immigrants.
Know-Nothing Party, officially known as the American Party, was a political movement in the 1850s that supported nativist policies and was particularly opposed to Irish Catholic immigrants
reflected growing anti-immigrant sentiment in mid-19th-century America.
highlighted the tensions between different ethnic and religious groups in America.
Eli Whitney
American inventor known for creating the cotton gin in 1793.
led to the explosive growth of cotton plantations in the American South and, consequently, a dramatic increase in the demand for slave labor.
Wage Slaves
Term for workers reliant on wages, often working under dire conditions.
central to labor movement discussions that pushed for better working conditions, higher wages, and labor rights.
Commonwealth vs. Hunt
An 1842 court case that established the legality of labor unions.
established the right of workers to form unions and strike in pursuit of better wages and working conditions.
Factory Girls
Young women who worked in the textile mills of Lowell, Massachusetts, in the early 19th century.
highlighted the growing role of women in the workforce and contributed to the early labor and women’s rights movements.
Cult of Domesticity
19th-century belief system that idealized women's roles as caregivers and homemakers.
helped lay the groundwork for women’s movements by fostering a sense of shared female identity.
Cyrus McCormick
American inventor who developed the mechanical reaper, enhancing grain harvest efficiency. (1830s)
contributed to the expansion of farming in the American Midwest and the rise of commercial agriculture
Erie Canal
Completed in 1825, it connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, via the Hudson River, spurring economic growth.
played a critical role in the Transportation Revolution,
helped establish New York City as a major commercial hub and fostered the development of other transportation networks
Second Great Awakening
A religious revival movement in the U.S. emphasizing personal salvation and social reform.
widespread religious fervor, encouraging the growth of new denominations and social reform movements (abolitionism, temperance).
Church of Christ of Latter-Day Saints
Also known as the Mormon Church, founded by Joseph Smith in 1830.
teaches a unique Christian doctrine centered around the Book of Mormon.
Mormons faced persecution for their beliefs
Their settlement in Utah was pivotal in the westward expansion
Horace Mann
The 'Father of the American Public School System' who advocated for free standardized education.
promoted training for teachers and longer school years, laying the foundation for the modern education system
Oberlin College
The first coeducational college in the U.S. and one of the first to admit Black students.
significant role in the abolitionist movement and the push for gender equality in education
Dorothea Dix
19th-century reformer advocating for humane treatment of the mentally ill.
Her efforts led to the establishment of more than 30 state mental hospitals and a transformation in the treatment of mental illness
American Temperance Society
An organization founded in 1826 aiming to reduce alcohol consumption in the U.S.
Neal Dow, a prominent temperance advocate, helped pass the Maine Law in 1851, which prohibited the sale of alcohol in the state. This marked the beginning of the Prohibition movement that would culminate in the 18th Amendment in 1920.
Seneca Falls Convention
The first women's rights convention in the U.S., held in 1848.
organized by Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott
convention’s “Declaration of Sentiments,” outlined the grievances of women and called for equal rights, including suffrage.
Susan B. Anthony
Prominent women's rights activist who played a crucial role in the women's suffrage movement.
instrumental in securing the right to vote for women, which was achieved with the passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
Key organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention and primary author of the 'Declaration of Sentiments.'
Utopias
19th-century experimental communities aimed at creating perfect societies.
reflected a broader social and political desire to address the inequalities and challenges of industrialization and urbanization.
Federal Style (Neo-Classical)
An architectural style popular in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, inspired by classical forms of ancient Greece and Rome that emphasized symmetry, simplicity, and grandeur, often seen in government buildings and public spaces.
Hudson River School / Thomas Cole
An American art movement known for its landscape paintings of the natural beauty of America. (mid 19th century)
contributed to the cultural understanding of America’s natural resources and the emerging idea of Manifest Destiny
The founder of the Hudson River School
Romanticism
A literary and artistic movement emphasizing emotion, individualism, and nature.
helped define early American literature by focusing on the American landscape, frontier life, and native cultures. It shaped a sense of national identity
Transcendentalism / Ralph Waldo Emerson
Philosophical and literary movement promoting inherent goodness and self-reliance. (1830s - 1850s)
advocating for social reform and inspiring future movements such as environmentalism and civil rights
key figure in the transcendentalist movement, Emerson wrote influential works like Self-Reliance, promoting individualism and nonconformity.
Cotton Kingdom
The Southern U.S. states where cotton farming was the dominant industry before the Civil War.
played a crucial role in the expansion of slavery in the South.
deepened economic divisions between the North and South, contributing to the outbreak of the Civil War.
Uncle Tom's Cabin
An anti-slavery novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe, published in 1852.
It portrayed the harsh realities of slavery.
The novel had a profound impact by galvanizing anti-slavery sentiment in the North and fueling sectional tensions.
Black Belt
A region in the Deep South known for its fertile soil and large African American populations.
central to the economic prosperity of the South,
Nat Turner's Rebellion
A violent slave rebellion led by Nat Turner, enslaved preacher, in Virginia in 1831.
intensified fear among white Southerners, leading to harsher laws restricting the rights of enslaved and free African Americans.
American Colonization Society
An organization aimed at relocating free African Americans to Africa.
intensified fear among white Southerners, leading to harsher laws restricting the rights of enslaved and free African Americans.
William Lloyd Garrison
Radical abolitionist and editor of 'The Liberator,' an influential anti-slavery newspaper.
Garrison’s uncompromising stance on immediate abolition without compensation to slaveholders pushed the abolitionist movement into the national spotlight.
American Anti-Slavery Society
An organization founded in 1833 advocating for the immediate end of slavery.
sparked intense opposition from pro-slavery factions, increasing sectional conflict.
David Walker
African American abolitionist whose 1829 pamphlet, Appeal to the Colored Citizens of the World, called for the immediate end of slavery and urged enslaved people to fight for their freedom
contributed to growing abolitionist activism and alarmed Southern slaveholders
Sojourner Truth
African American abolitionist and women’s rights activist who was born into slavery but escaped to freedom in 1826.
her famous “Ain’t I a Woman?” address, linked the struggles for abolition and women’s rights, advancing both causes.
Mason-Dixon Line
boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland. Over time, it came to symbolize the division between free states in the North and slave states in the South.
John Tyler
10th President of the United States, known for his support of states' rights and presided over the annexation of Texas, further inflaming tensions over the expansion of slavery.
became pres after william henry harrison’s death
Caroline
An American steamboat attacked by British forces in 1837, heightening tensions with Britain.
Aroostook War
undeclared conflict between the U.S. and Britain over the boundary between Maine and the British Canadian province of New Brunswick.
settled by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty, which established clear borders between Maine and Canada, averting further conflict.
Lone Star Republic
Texas after declaring independence from Mexico in 1836 and before annexation.
contributed to growing tensions with Mexico, leading to the Mexican-American War. It also reignited debates over the expansion of slavery, as Texas entered the Union as a slave state.
James K. Polk
11th President of the United States, known for territorial expansion and Manifest Destiny.
annexation of Texas, the Oregon boundary settlement, and the acquisition of California and the Southwest through the Mexican-American War.
significantly shaped the U.S.'s geographic and political future.
Oregon Country / Oregon Trail / “Oregon Fever”
_________ _______ was a large region in the Pacific Northwest claimed by both the U.S. and Britain in the early 19th century.
The ______ Trail was a route used by settlers to travel westward to ____.
"_____ Fever" refers to the mass migration of settlers to Oregon in the 1840s.
expanded U.S. territory and fulfilled part of the nation’s Manifest Destiny
Manifest Destiny
19th-century belief that the U.S. was destined to expand across North America.
intensified debates over slavery's expansion
fueled U.S. territorial expansion
54th 40' parallel / 49th parallel / Compromise of 1846
_________ parallel was the northern boundary claimed by the U.S. in the Oregon Territory, while the _____ parallel was the boundary proposed by Britain. The Compromise of ____ settled the Oregon boundary dispute at the ____ parallel.
furthered the nation’s westward expansion and realization of Manifest Destiny.
Spot Resolutions
resolutions introduced by then-Congressman Abraham Lincoln in 1847, questioning President Polk’s justification for the Mexican-American War by asking for the exact “spot” where blood was first shed
reflected growing skepticism, particularly in the North, about the legitimacy of the Mexican-American War
Zachary Taylor
U.S. general during the Mexican-American War and 12th President of the United States.
his victories contributed to U.S. territorial expansion.
presidency was marked by debates over the expansion of slavery into newly acquired territories, setting the stage for the Compromise of 1850.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
Treaty ending the Mexican-American War and ceding territory to the U.S.
increased U.S. territory and exacerbated the debate over the expansion of slavery into new territories
Wilmot Proviso
proposed amendment in 1846 that sought to prohibit slavery in any territory acquired from Mexico following the Mexican-American War.
ignited fierce debates over slavery’s expansion.
Californios
Hispanic residents of California during the period when it was part of Mexico and after it was ceded to the U.S.
Many lost land and status as American settlers arrived.
Lewis Cass / popular sovereignty
prominent Democratic politician and diplomat, known for championing the principle of _______ _________ (belief that the settlers of a territory should decide whether to allow slavery) (1840s and 1850s)
led to increased tensions and violence, particularly in Kansas (dubbed "Bleeding Kansas")
Free Soil Party / Free-Soilers
Political party formed in 1848 opposing the expansion of slavery into western territories acquired from Mexico
represented the growing sectional divide over slavery and foreshadowed the emergence of the Republican Party.
California Gold Rush
Mass migration to California following the discovery of gold in 1848.
accelerated California’s admission to the Union as a free state in 1850
brought diverse populations, including immigrants from Latin America, Europe, and China, to the U.S., transforming California into a multicultural society.
Harriet Tubman
Abolitionist and conductor of the Underground Railroad, network of secret routes and safe houses that helped enslaved African Americans escape to freedom
Daniel Webster
Senator known for advocating compromise on the issue of slavery and supporting the Compromise of 1850, particularly in his 7th of March Speech.
Webster’s speech angered many abolitionists
Compromise of 1850
Series of laws to resolve disputes over slavery and territories after the Mexican-American War, temporarily delayed the Civil War
It admitted California as a free state,
allowed popular sovereignty in New Mexico and Utah,
abolished the slave trade in Washington, D.C.,
and enacted a stricter Fugitive Slave Law.
New Fugitive Slave Law of 1850
Law requiring escaped enslaved people to be returned to their owners.
deeply antagonized Northerners, intensified abolitionist sentiment and led to widespread resistance and nullification efforts in Northern states.
Franklin Pierce
14th President of the United States, who supported pro-Southern policies and the expansion of slavery, criticized for his handling of slavery issues.
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty
Signed in 1850 between the U.S. and Britain, this Treaty sought to resolve disputes over control of potential canals in Central America.
Both nations agreed to prevent exclusive control and to cooperate in building any future canals.
laid groundwork for later U.S. interests in the Panama Canal,
Ostend Manifesto
secret document authored in 1854 by U.S. diplomats, proposing that the U.S. should purchase or seize Cuba from Spain if necessary, with the rationale of expanding slavery.
outraged the north
Treaty of Kanagawa
signed in 1854, was an agreement between the U.S. and Japan, opening two Japanese ports to American trade and ending Japan’s policy of isolation.
treaty expanded trade in the Pacific, illustrating American economic interests in Asia and signaling the beginning of its influence in the region.
Gadsden Purchase
1853 land purchase from Mexico (10 mil), covering parts of present-day Arizona and New Mexico, aimed at facilitating a southern transcontinental railroad.
expanded U.S. territory, fulfilling Manifest Destiny.
further fueled debates over slavery
Stephen Douglas
Illinois senator known for the Kansas-Nebraska Act (1854) and promoting popular sovereignty in those territories
Kansas-Nebraska Act
1854 law allowing Kansas and Nebraska to decide on slavery through popular sovereignty, repealing the Missouri Compromise.
led to violent conflicts in Kansas, as pro- and anti-slavery settlers flooded the area to influence the vote
Bleeding Kansas
Violent conflicts in Kansas between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions. (1854 - 1859)
Lecompton Constitution
Proposed pro-slavery constitution for Kansas Territory in 1857
sought to admit Kansas to the Union as a slave state, even though anti-slavery settlers made up a majority of the population.
deepened the divide within the Democratic Party.
President James Buchanan supported it, but Senator Stephen Douglas opposed it, arguing it contradicted the principle of popular sovereignty.
Charles Sumner
Anti-slavery senator known for his speech 'The Crime Against Kansaanti-slavery senator from Massachusetts who delivered a speech titled "The Crime Against Kansas" in 1856, condemning the spread of slavery and denouncing the pro-slavery violence in Kansas.
Election of 1856
presidential contest between 3 people
Buchanan won the presidency with support from Southern and Northern Democrats who sought to preserve the Union amid growing sectional tensions.
signaled the emergence of the Republican Party as a powerful anti-slavery force
Dred Scott v. Sandford
1857 Supreme Court case in which enslaved man sued for his freedom, arguing that his residence in free territories made him free.
The Court ruled that African Americans, free or enslaved, were not U.S. citizens and had no legal standing to sue, and that Congress could not prohibit slavery in territories.
invalidated the Missouri Compromise and effectively allowed the expansion of slavery into western territories.
Lincoln-Douglas Debates
series of seven debates between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas during the Illinois Senate race, focused on the issue of slavery in the territories (1858)
During these debates, Douglas introduced the Freeport Doctrine, stating that territories could effectively exclude slavery by refusing to adopt laws that protected it.
Freeport Doctrine alienated Southern Democrats
elevated Lincoln’s profile as a leading voice against slavery’s expansion
John Brown / Pottawatomie Massacre / Raid on Harper’s Ferry
______ _________ was a radical abolitionist who believed in violent action against slavery. In 1856, he led the ____________ Massacre in Kansas, killing five pro-slavery settlers.
In 1859, he attempted to start a slave uprising by attacking a federal armory at ______ ____, Virginia, though the raid failed.
Brown’s legacy influenced abolitionist fervor and pushed the country further toward war.
Constitutional Union Party
Party, formed in 1860, was composed of former Whigs and Know-Nothings who sought to preserve the Union by avoiding divisive issues, primarily slavery.
Its failure to gain support in the election revealed the depth of sectional divides, as voters increasingly aligned with pro- or anti-slavery factions
Election of 1860
Presidential election won by Lincoln, leading to Southern secession. (4 candidates)
Crittenden Compromise / Crittenden Amendments
Failed attempt to prevent Southern secession by offering amendments protecting slavery south of the Missouri Compromise line. (1860)
Confederate States of America / Jefferson Davis
coalition of Southern states that seceded from the Union in 1861, forming a separate government based on the preservation of slavery.
___________. _______ a former U.S. senator and secretary of war, was elected as its president.
Fort Sumter
Site of the first battle of the Civil War on April 12, 1861.
federal fort located in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina
when Confederate forces attacked the fort. prompting four more Southern states to secede.
Border States
Slave states that remained loyal to the Union during the Civil War.
Had significant populations, resources, and strategic locations that influenced military campaigns.
Billy Yanks and Johnny Reb
Nicknames for Union and Confederate soldiers during the Civil War.
Trent Affair
1861 diplomatic incident in which the Union navy intercepted the British mail ship Trent and captured two Confederate diplomats.
Threatened to bring Britain into the Civil War on the side of the Confederacy
CSS Alabama
Confederate commerce raider ship built in Britain that attacked Union merchant and naval vessels.
Caused significant disruption to Union shipping
Strained relations between the U.S. and Britain
Led to the "Alabama Claims," where the U.S. sought reparations from Britain after the war
Morrill Tariff Act
tariff law passed in 1861 that increased import duties to raise revenue and protect American industries.
Provided critical funding for the Union war effort
National Banking System
federal banking system established in 1863 to create a stable national currency and finance the Civil War.
Strengthened federal control over the economy
USS Merrimack vs. USS Monitor
Battle of Hampton Roads (1862) involved two ironclad warships during the Civil War – the Confederate USS Merrimack (renamed the CSS Virginia) and the Union USS Monitor.
signaling a turning point in naval warfare.
Robert E. Lee
Confederate general known for commanding the Army of Northern Virginia.
Emancipation Proclamation
Issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, it declared freedom for enslaved people in Confederate states.
Changed the war’s focus to abolishing slavery
Allowed Black men to join the Union Army
Paved the way for the Thirteenth Amendment, which fully abolished slavery.
Thirteenth Amendment
Constitutional amendment ratified in 1865 that abolished slavery in the United States.
MA 54th Regiment
One of the first Black regiments in the Union Army, organized in Massachusetts in 1863.
Gettysburg Address / Gettysburg
The Battle of __________ (July 1863) was a major turning point in the Civil War; Lincoln’s _________ __________ (Nov. 19, 1863) was a speech to honor those who fought there.
Union’s victory halted Confederate momentum and weakened Lee’s forces.
Siege of Vicksburg
A Union siege (May-July 1863) led by General Ulysses S. Grant on Vicksburg, Mississippi.
Union gained control of the Mississippi River, splitting the Confederacy in two.
Ulysses S. Grant
Union general known for key victories in the Civil War.
helped secure Union victory and earned him national fame, leading to his presidency.
William T. Sherman
Union general known for his 'March to the Sea' campaign.
Union general who led a destructive campaign from Atlanta to Savannah, Georgia, in 1864.
Copperheads
Northern Democrats opposed to the Civil War, favoring peace with the Confederacy.
