HRM 446 Final

Motivation

anything that provides direction, intensity, and persistence to behavior

Job Satisfaction

a person’s attitudes/feelings about the job (e.g., pay, promotion, co-workers, etc.)

Performance

behaviors directed toward the organization's goals or the products/services resulting from those behaviors

Effectiveness

the adequacy of the behaviors exhibited by employees 

Hawthorne Effect

employees work harder if they think managers are paying attention to them 

• Think of it as a “need to be noticed”

3 fundamental psychological needs motivate behavior 

competence, autonomy, relatedness

Competence

the need to feel affective and capable in one’s pursuits, to experience mastery and success

Autonomy

 the need to feel a sense of control in one’s actions, to feel that one is acting in accordance with one’s values and interest 

Relatedness

the need to feel connected and supported in one’s social environment

Regulatory Focus Theory

People are primary driven by one of two motivation systems: promotion focus and prevention focus 

Promotion focus

motivation driven by aspirations, growth, and achieving gains (“success seeker”)

Prevention focus

motivation driven by safety, responsibilities, and avoiding losses (“failure avoider”

Process perspectives

the thought process by which people decide how to act

Distributive justice

perception that appropriate rules were applied when making final distribution of benefits/burdens 

Procedural justice:

perception that appropriate rules were applied throughout entire decision making process

Interactional justice

the degree to which people feel they are treated with dignity, respect, and honesty; especially during decision making process

Specific management

the process of reducing the number of tasks a worker performs 

Job Enrichment

building into a job such motivating factors as responsibility, achievement, recognition, stimulating work, and advancement 

Theory X

pessimistic view of followers; belief that followers are naturally unmotivated and dislike work 

Theory Y

optimistic; belief that followers like their jobs and welcome opportunities for authority, responsibility, and advancement

Theory X Likely Leadership Style:

• Autocratic leadership 

• The leader holds absolute control, makes all decisions, and expects unquestioning obedience from subordinates 

Theory Y Likely Leadership Style: 

• Democratic leadership 

• The leader involves team members in the decision-making process encouraging open communication and collaboration

Pygmalion effect

having high expectations of followers influences your behavior in a manner that elicit high performance from followers

Golem effect:

having low expectations of followers influences your behavior in a manner that elicits low performance from followers

Reward

any consequence that increases the likelihood that a particular behavior will be repeated

Punishment

adding something undesirable to the environment or removing something desirable in order to decrease the likelihood that a particular behavior is repeated.

Contingent

rewards/punishments given as a consequence of a particular behavior

Non-Contingent

rewards/punishments not associated with a particular behavior 

Empowerment:

delegating decision-making down to the lowest level possible

Why is empowerment encouraged?

Equipping followers with the resources, knowledge, and skills necessary to make good decisions 

Leaders need to…

• Specify what behaviors are important 

• Determine if those behaviors are currently being rewarded, punished, or ignored 

• Find out what consequences followers perceive as rewarding/punishing 

• Avoid creating perceptions of favoritism when rewarding/punishing subordinates

• Not limit themselves to implementing organizationally sanctioned rewards/punishments 

Surface-level:

characteristics that are readily visible (e.g., race, sex, age (usually), some disabilities)

Deep-level

characteristics that are not easily distinguishable visually (e.g., sexual orientation, religion (mostly), social class, attitude, rationality, health status (usually), marital status, etc.)

Immutable

characteristics that cant be changed (e.g., race, height, etc.)

Changeable:

characteristics that can be changed (e.g., religion, marital status, etc.)

Diversity: Potential Advantages

• Companies with favorable records (in terms of managing diversity) can more easily recruit top talent 

• Creativity advantage (due to diverse perspectives)

• Avoidance of cultural missteps 

• Legitimacy in the eyes of customers and other external stakeholders

Diversity: Potential Problems

• Higher risk of conflict (compared to homogenous workforces)

• Typically due to difference in values

Minimal-group paradigm

bias is easily aroused. Even under the minimal conditions for group affiliation

Individualism

seeing yourself as an individual before anything else; believing your interests take priority 

Collectivism

Believing that the interests of your group/society should be top priority 

Power distance 

Extent to which employees accept the idea of a hierarchy (i.e., that members of an organization have different levels of power)

Uncertainty avoidance

Extent to which people accept the unknown or tolerate risk

Long-Term vs. Short-Term Orientation

Long term: willing to wait for returns on investments 

Short term: demand for immediate or quick results on investments

Formality vs Informality

Formality: respect for tradition, ceremony, social rules, and rank

Informality: a casual attitude towards those things

High context vs Low context cultures 

High context: more consideration of additional details (interpersonal relationships, nonverbal expressions, physical setting, and social settings) when communicating 

Low context: less use of additional details 

Performance orientation

Extent to which culture encourages/rewards performance improvement and excellence

Competitive Intelligence:

Gaining information about your competitors’ activities so you can anticipate their moves and react appropriately

Benchmarking

 a company compares its performance with that of high-performing organizations 

Forecasting

predicting the future (a vision or projection of the future)

Trend Analysis

a hypothetical extension of a past series of events into the future

Contingency planning

the creation of hypothetical but equally likely future scenarios

Barriers to effective cross-cultural collaboration:

• Stereotyping 

• Language differences: can lead to misunderstandings, conflict, etc.

Ethnocentric

belief that your native country, culture, language, and behavior are superior to all others

Polycentric

belief that native managers in the foreign offices best understand native personnel/practices, so home office should leave them alone 

Geocentric

belief that there are differences and similarities between home and foreign personnel and practices and that you should use whatever techniques are most effective.

Prejudice:

a preconceived opinion on judgment, often negative, formed without adequate knowledge or examination

“Hot” prejudice explanations 

• Hot explanations assume that there’s a motivation to possess the prejudice

• Historically more emphasized

• Share a common focus on self esteem 

- “valuing me and mine”

Social Identity Theory

 who you are is based in part on group affiliations (the “mine” in “valuing me & mine”)

“Cold” prejudice explanations 

• Cold” explanations make no such assumption and simply view prejudice as the unfortunate consequence of otherwise everything cognitive processes

• Social learning (prejudice is learned acquired)

- family, friends, media 

- illusory correlations

Cross-cultural motivation

 in order to apply techniques to motivate workers, understand cultural differences in valued outcomes 

Anti-bias training

helps employees uncover their unconscious biases that may influence their treatment of certain groups

superordinate goals

goals that all followers value and that also require the combined resources/efforts of the parties

Attraction-Selection-Attrition Model

a model explaining why organizations become homogeneous over time 

Attraction, Selection, Attrition Defintition

Attraction: people are attracted to orgs that share their values, goals, etc.

Selection: orgs’s selection process chooses people who fit the org culture

Attrition: people who don’t fit the culture or leave OR get fired

Turnover

the rate at which employees voluntarily leave an organization or are replaced

Functional turnover

employee departures due to issues such as retirement, misconduct, or substandard performance

Dysfunctional turnover

occurs when high performing employees leave due to dissatisfaction

Why bother managing performance? Why not just get rid of struggling employees or let them leave?

• Costs of replacing struggling employees 

• Intervention/aid might be cheaper 

• It might not completely be their fault

• Costs associated with your organization having a bad reputation

Global satisfaction

the overall degree to which employees are satisfied with their organization and their job 

Facet satisfaction

the degree to which employees are satisfied with different aspects of work (pay, vacation time, relationships with co-workers, etc.)

Hierarchy effect: 

people with longer tenures or higher positions tend to have “higher” global and facet satisfaction than people new to the org or lower in rank

follower engagement

Followers attitudes about the organization and their work activities

4 steps in the control process:

establish standards, measure performance, compare performance to standards, and take corrective action if necessary

Discipline:

the process that corrects undesirable behavior

Investigative interview

• Meeting between leader and employee to ensure employee is aware of the issues 

• Allows employee to explain his/her side of the story

wrongful termination

firing or laying off an employee for an illegal reason (ex. Violation of an agreement your org made with an employee)

Performance Evaluation

 a systematic way to examine how well an employee is performing in his or her job 

Calibration:

a process where managers and HR leaders come together to review and align employee performance ratings across teams or departments 

Graphic Rating Scale

focuses on the essential behaviors and traits that determine whether a task is done well or poorly 

• Rather choose the option on a scale that best reflects the quality of the employee they’re rating

Critical Incidents:

 focuses on the essential behaviors and traits that determine whether a task is done well or poorly.

• Involves briefly summarizing situations (incidents) that demonstrate either successful or unsuccessful behavior 

Checklist Scale

 series of “yes”/”no” questions about traits or behaviors relevant to org’s functioning

Ranking

comparing employees to each other in terms of behaviors relevant to organizational outcome 

• “Compared to his/her peers, this employee is (extremely below average, average, above average, extremely above average) in X domain.”

360-Degree Feedback

a way to appraise performance by using several sources to measure the employee's effectiveness

Importance of multi-method approaches

performance evaluations should incorporate more than one approach

Importance of reference group

a collection of people that we use as a standard of comparison 

Foundational questions:

how does the nature of a task (situational factors) influence the necessity of overseeing the followers

Task autonomy:

the degree to which a job provides an individual with some control over what he/she does and how he/she does it. High autonomy, less supervision 

Task feedback

 the degree to which a person accomplishes a task receives information about performance from performing the task itself. High task feedback, no micromanaging. 

Task structure:

the presence/absence of a procedure for accomplishing a task 

• Structured (don’t need to oversee as much) vs unstructured tasks 

Task interdependence

the degree to which a task requires coordination between multiple individuals to accomplish desired goals. High task interdependent, less oversight 

Adaptive problem: (pandemic)

• Problem for which problem solving resources DO NOT exist 

• Addressing this type of problem DOES require a significant change to the social system where it occurred

Technical problem: (black friday)

• Problem for which problem-solving resources already exist

• Addressing this type of problem does not require a significant change to the social system where it occurred 

Change Leadership

looks at the driving forces, processes, and visions that can help a change occur and usually involved larger-scale changes, such as a major reorganization 

Bolman’s Frames of Change

a framework for navigating through an organizational change; what paths are available 

Bolman’s Four Frames: 

• Structural: focuses on the obvious ‘how’ of change; mainly a task-oriented fram prioritizing strategy; setting measurable goals, clarifying task, responsibility 

• HR: prioritizes giving employees the power/opportunity to perform jobs well, while also addressing their needs for job satisfaction, work life balance, etc

• Political: focuses on the problem of individuals and interest groups having sometimes conflicting (often hidden) agenda; prioritizes building coalitions to support change 

• Symbolic: addresses people's needs for a sense of purpose and meaning in their work; focus is on attempts to inspire individuals and toward the change

Forces for Change:

• External pressures: PESTLE, Porter’s forces, The “O” and the “T” in SWOT

• Individual pressures: Your needs, your values, The “S” and the “W” in SWOT

Beer and Nohria’s Model:

• “Theory E” leaders: focus is on economic value; this is the basis for making business decisions 

• “Theory O” leaders: focus is on understanding culture, human capital, and gain of employee commitment when making organizational changes

Destructive leadership:

being effective at engaging followers, building teams, and getting results through others; BUT… using this skill in pursuit of morally or ethically questionable outcomes