PSYCH 2032

History of Assessment and Treatment of Young Offenders

In 17th, 18th, 19th centuries treated as adult offenders - criminal justice system made no accommodations or considerations

CA enacted Juvenile Delinquents Act (JDA) in 1908 - in response to disregard

Applied to 7-16 yr olds

Youth called delinquents rather than offenders, considered to commit acts of delinquency (truancy)- not criminal offences

Separate court system established

Judges had sentencing discretion and sentencing options increased (e.g., foster care, fines, and institutionalization).

Parents were encouraged to be part of the judicial process

JDA WAS REPLACED BY...

JDA in effect until 1984, replaced by the Young Offenders Act (YOA)- represented a shift in how youth were perceived.

Were to be held responsible, yet acknowledged the differences

Overall attempted to make youth more accountable for behaviour while supporting rehabilitation through treatment programs and providing alternatives to incarceration for less serious crimes

MAJOR Criticism; YOA serious violent offences carried relatively short (light) sentences

Others included disagreement over raising min age to 12

recognized that youths should be afforded all the rights stated in the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

YOA also included...

Youth had to be at least 12 years old to be processes through the justice system

Children younger > family and child services

Allowed for youth to be diverted - diversion is a decision not to prosecute young offender but rather have him or her undergo an educational or community service program

For diversion, young offenders must plead guilty

Other dispositions available:

Absolute discharge

Fine

Compensation for loss or damaged property

Restitution to the victim

Prohibition order (i.e. no weapons)

Community service

Probation

Custody

TWO TYPES of custody

(1) open (placing youth in community residential facility, group home, child-care facility, or wilderness camp) or (2) secure (incarcerating youth in a prison facility)

A number of amendments made to YOA

Bill C-106 sec 16: required youth court to consider whether Crown or defence would like to make an application to transfer case to adult court

Bill C-37 sec 16: 16 & 17 yr olds charged with murder, manslaughter, or aggravated sexual assault would go to adult court

Sentences for youth changed; first degree = 10 yr max, 6-yr max to be served incarcerate

YOA's 4 key changes:

1. Youth to be held accountable for their actions, however, not to full extent adults are

2. Public has right to be protected from young offenders

3. Young offenders have legal rights and freedoms, including those described in the CA Charter of Rights and Freedoms

4. Children have to be at least 12 years old to be charged with a criminal offence

In 2003, WHAT replaced YOA

Youth Criminal Justice Act (YCJA) replaced YOA

The three main objectives:

1. To prevent youth crime

2. To provide meaningful consequences and encourage responsibility of behaviour

3. To improve rehabilitation and reintegration of youth into the community

YCJA continued

Onus on police to consider outlets + less serious alternatives called extrajudicial measures: include giving warning or making a referral for treatment (with the consent of the youth)

New custodial sentence became available known as intensive rehabilitative custody and supervision order (IRCS) - designed to deal with very serious cases where a mental health issue exists

Naming Youth:

:Under the current YCJA, the name of the youth cannot be reported to the public but, rather, can be released only under special circumstances:

1. defendants between the ages of 14 and 17 who are convicted of serious, violent offences, such as murder and aggravated sexual assault, may have their names published and communicated to the public

2. if the youth is considered dangerous, his or her photo may be published

3. exception to releasing a youth's name and photo also can be made if the youth has not yet been apprehended

Sentencing options have increased under the YCJA.

1. Judges are able to provide a reprimand (i.e., lecture or warning to the youth),

2. an intensive support and supervision order,

3. an attendance order (i.e., youth must attend a specific program),

4. a deferred custody and supervision order (i.e., youth can serve their sentence in the community as long as imposed conditions are met)

5. an intensive rehabilitative custody

6. supervision order (i.e., youth in custody receive intensive services and supervision)

YCJA made changes to process as well:

transfer process is eliminated. Instead, youth court determines whether the youthful defendant is guilty, and if so, the judge can impose an adult sentence with youth as young as 14 years old (this age can be set at 15 or 16 years of age)

YCJA serious attempt at improving interest of victims (i.e. informed, participate, community based dispositions)

5 The Youth Criminal Justice Act's Key Changes to the Canadian Criminal Justice System

1. Less serious and less violent offences should be kept out of the formal court process.

2. The number of extrajudical measures is increased.

3. There is a greater focus on prevention and reintegration into the community.

4. Transfers to adult court are removed; instead, youth court judges can impose adult sentences.

5. The interests and needs of victims are recognized.

YOUTH CRIME RATES:

- DECREASING

Probation most common sentence provided

Most common decision in youth court cases was one of guilt

- Decreased over 10 years

Assessing those under 12

Often a clinician will obtain two levels of consent before assessing a child or adolescent

Children's and youth's emotional and behavioural difficulties can be categorized as:

internalizing - Emotional difficulties such as anxiety, depression, and obsessions experienced by a youth

Should be assessed and treated, may co-occur with externailizing

Externalizing: Behavioural difficulties such as delinquency, fighting, bullying, lying, or destructive behaviour experienced by a youth (more difficult to treat and LT persistance, DECREASE in adulthood)

To assess externalizing

multiple informants are necessary to obtain an accurate assessment because there is often variability in reporting across different types of respondents, Important> behaviour be viewed within a developmental context

3 childhood psychiatric diagnoses occur with some frequency in young offenders:

1) ADHD

2) oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)

3) Conduct Disorder

attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD):

disorder in a youth characterized by a persistent pattern of inattention and hyperactivity or impulsivity

Measured using DSM-5, must consider age

Many young children have as part of normal development

oppositional defiant disorder (ODD):

A disorder in a youth characterized by a persistent pattern of negativistic, hostile, and defiant behaviours

- Lasting at least 6 months evidenced by at least 4 symptoms of any listed categories and exhibited during interaction with at least one indv who is not a sibling

Approximately 40% of individuals with ODD develop CD- if develop CD, ODD diagnosis is not used

conduct disorder (CD):

A disorder characterized by a persistent pattern of behaviour in which a youth violates the rights of others or age appropriate societal norms or rules

- Manifested by the presence of at least 3 of 15 criteria in past 12 months with at least one in past 6 months

- 30-50% meeting criteria for CD go on to receive diagnosis for Antisocial Personality Disorder in adulthood → predictive later in life

ODD and CD NOT diagnosed if

individual is over 18 yrs old

Assessing the Adolescent

Instruments = checklist: scored on a scale, points summed, cut-off value set for either detaining or releasing young offender

Risk-Assessment instruments collect info about a set of factors

Static (cannot change, i.e. first arrest)

Dynamic (factors that change, i.e. antisocial attitudes)

Risk factors different for adults

History of behaviour > adult, may be limited/ambiguous for adults

More influenced by context

Adaptive to environment

Experience more developmental issues and character changes

Rates of Behaviour Disorders in Youth

Prevalence rates

5.7% disruptive disorder, another study 6.4%

3.6% ODD

2.1% CD

3.4% AD/HD, another study 2.1%

behavioural and/or defiant disorders are likely to co-occur.

22.5% with AD/HD had CD or ODD

Others est 20-50%

Trajectories of Young Offenders

TWO PATHWAYS: (1) Childhood Onset vs (2) Adolescent Onset

- early onset of antisocial behaviour is related to more serious and persistent antisocial behaviour later in life

childhood onset also may have a number of other difficulties, such as AD/HD, learning disabilities, and academic difficulties

The adolescent-onset pattern occurs in about 70% of the general population

Theories to Explain Anti-Social Behaviour

1) Biological

2) Cognitive

3) Social

Biological Theories

Frontal lobe functioning- responsible for the planning and inhibiting of behaviour

- conduct-disordered youth have less frontal lobe inhibition

slower heart rates than youth who do not engage in antisocial behaviour

Genetic studies > relation between paternal antisocial behaviour and child offspring antisocial behaviour (role in early onset), more for boys

Cognitive Theories

Conduct-disordered youth demonstrate cognitive deficits and distortions- attend to fewer cues and misattribute hostile intent to ambiguous situations, Cognitive deficits are likely to be present in early childhood and may contribute to child-onset conduct disorder

SEE TWO TYPES OF AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOUR

TWO TYPES of aggressive behaviour:

1) Reactive- an emotionally aggressive response to a perceived threat or frustration

- EARLIER onset

- Related to substance abuse and anxiety in adulthood

2) Proactive- directed at achieving a goal or receiving positive reinforcers.

- deficiencies in generating alternative responses and often choose an aggressive response

- Uniquely related to antisocial behaviour, binge drinking, antisocial personality traits (i.e. callous affect, violence and delinquent behaviour)

Social learning theory:

A theory of human behaviour based on learning from watching others in the social environment and reinforcement contingencies

- imitate behaviour that receives positive reinforcement than behaviour that receives negative reinforcement or punishment.

Intergenerational aggression- high risk if father violent in childhood and/or adolescence

Risk Factors:

1) Individual, 2) Familial, 3) School and Social Risk Factors

1) Individual Risk Factors

- a parent's own history of AD/HD or behavioural difficulties are known risk factors for their offspring, especially for sons

- A pregnant woman's use of drugs and alcohol can place the fetus at risk for later behavioural problems

- A child's temperament also can be a risk factor (impulsiveness)

Teen Dads

African-American teen dads had a greater number of prior offences, associated with more delinquent peers, had more traumatic backgrounds, engaged in risky sexual behaviour, and had greater educational risk factors compared to European-American males.

European-American teen dads, on the other hand, were more likely to engage in substance use.

2) Familial Risk Factors

- Neglect or insecurely attached > risk for later behavioural problems

- Divorce and familial conflict are risk factors for children

- Parenting style also can be problematic (i.e. overly strict parents)

- Substance abuse, child abuse

- Other ex; low socioeconomic status, large family size, and parental mental health problems

3) School and Social Risk Factors

- trouble reading and having a lower intelligence

- play with aggressive peers

- Gang youth more likely to reoffend than non-gang youth > only exception scored similarly except peer delinquency

Protective Factors- Resilient:

Characteristic of a child who has multiple risk factors but who does not develop problem behaviours or negative symptoms

number of areas in which protectiveness can be present: genetic variables, personality dispositions, supportive family environments, and community supports.

Rutter (1990) identified four ways that protective factors are effective:

1. Protective factors reduce negative outcomes by changing the risk level of the child's exposure to a risk factor.

2. They change the negative chain reaction following exposure to risk.

3. They help to develop and maintain self-esteem and self-efficacy.

4. They provide opportunities to children that they would not otherwise have.

Protective factors can be grouped into three categories:

(1) individual, (2) familial, and (3) social/external factors

Individual Protective Factors:

Resilient temperaments include exceptional social skills, child competencies, confident perceptions, values, attitudes, and beliefs within the child

Familial Protective Factors:

positive aspects of the child's parents/guardians and home environment.

social/external protective factors

Peer groups can have a strong effect on child outcomes

associating with prosocial children is a protective factor against antisocial behavior and is related to desistance in juvenile offending

INTERVENTION - 3 LEVELS

1. Primary intervention strategies: Strategies that are implemented prior to any violence occurring, with the goal of decreasing the likelihood that violence will occur later on

(family, school, or community oriented)

2. Secondary intervention strategies: Strategies that attempt to reduce the frequency of violence

3. Tertiary violence strategies: Strategies that attempt to prevent violence from reoccurring

Primary INTERVENTION strategies

Goal is to identify groups of children that have numerous risk factors, address early

can generally be classified as:

1. Parent-focused interventions: directed at assisting parents to recognize warning signs for later youth violence and/or training parents to effectively manage any behavioural problems that arise

- More success on short-term

discontinue the training at rates that may exceed 50%

2. Family-supportive interventions: interventions that connect at-risk families to various support services (i.e. child care, counselling)

Popular parent-education program- Incredible Years Parenting Program (IYP)- 12 week training program build emotional bond between parents and child

LT benefits

Primary INTERVENTION strategies- 2

School-Oriented Strategies: common environment for primary prevention strategies

Include pre-school programs, (i.e. Project Head Start- incorporates IYP), social skills training, broad based social interventions

- Cognitive-behavioural therapy usually component

Benefit in short-term

Community-Wide Strategies

- SNAP (Stop Now And Plan) Under 12 Outreach Project (ORP)

Under 12 Outreach Project (ORP)- a standardized 12-week outpatient program

Effectiveness of SNAP: YES reduce aggressive and behavioural difficulties

Secondary INTERVENTION strategies:

goal of these strategies is to provide social and clinical services so that young offenders do not go on to commit serious violence.

- Many same strategies used from primary

Difference = target (children involved)

Common strategies:

diversion programs, alternative and vocational education, family therapy, and skills training

Tertiary Intervention:

aimed at youth who have engaged in criminal acts and who may have already been processed through formal court proceedings

more "treatment" than prevention, minimize impact of existing risk factors

- in-patient treatment (i.e., institutional, residential) and community-based treatment

APPROACH-

retribution believe that young offenders should be held accountable for their actions, punished accordingly, and separated from society.

rehabilitation believe that treatment based in the community is a more effective way to reduce the likelihood of reoffending.

Domestic Violence:

any violence occurring between family members

- women's liberation movement and the growth of feminism that gave women the courage to speak out against such violence

Intimate partner violence/spousal violence:

Any violence occurring between intimate partners who are living together or separated. Also known as spousal violence

Most commonly used to measure intimate partner assault has been the

Conflict Tactics Scale (CTS)

5 scales- negotiation, psychological, physical assault, sexual coercion, injury scale

Criticisms of CTS:

1. The CTS/CTS2 do not include all potential violent acts

2. CTS/CTS2 does not take into account the different contexts or consequences of the same act for men and women.

3. CTS/CTS2 does not assess motive for violence, and therefore initiating and responding with violence are treated equally

Prevalence of Intimate Partner Violence in Aboriginal Populations:

- 2 times amount of violence

- more likely to contact police

The Prevalence of Dating Violence in University Students

- females less likely to be perpetrators

- Canada in lower half of countries

- Substance abuse strongly linked to dating violence

THEORIES OF INTIMATE VIOLENCE:

(1) Social, (2) Evolutionary

Patriarchy

Broad set of cultural beliefs and values that support the male dominance of women

- States with male-dominant norms had much higher rates of spousal assault than those with more egalitarian norms

Social Learning Theory:

Social learning theory, developed by Bandura (1973) to explain aggression generally, has been used by Dutton (1995) to explain intimate partner violence specifically.

- 3 MAIN COMPONENTS: origins of aggression, instigators of aggression, and regulators of aggression

People acquire new behaviours is via observational learning:

Learning behaviours by watching others perform these behaviours

- three major sources for observational learning: family of origin, the subculture the person lives in, and televised violence.

REQUIRES- appropriate event in the environment acts as a stimulus for the behaviour,

INSTIGATORS ARE...

Instigators: In social learning theory, these are events in the environment that act as a stimulus for acquired behaviours

2 types of instigators

1. Aversive instigators produce emotional arousal, and how a person labels that emotional arousal will influence how he or she responds

Studies with male batterers have found that they tend to label many different emotional states as anger (Gondolf [1985] labelled this the male emotional funnel system)

2. Incentive instigators are perceived rewards for engaging in aggression. When people believe they can satisfy their needs by using aggression, they may decide to be violent

Social learning theory assumes that behaviour is regulated by its consequences.

Regulators

Regulators: In social learning theory, these are consequences of behaviours

Two types of regulators include external punishment and self-punishment

external punishment would be if the person was arrested for engaging in violence.

self-punishment would be if the person felt remorse for engaging in violence

ecological model first proposed by Dutton

relationship among the multiple levels that influence intimate violence, including cultural beliefs and attitudes, social institutions and laws, relationship qualities, and psychological and biological factors unique to the individual.

Evolutionary psychology:

The scientific study of psychology that takes the evolutionary history of a species into account when understanding a psychological trait and what led to its origination, development, and maintenance

selective pressure—an environmental circumstance that provides an opportunity for new genes to develop that give a survival and/or reproductive advantage for those who have those genes

Buss and Duntley (2011) argue that some selective pressures facing humans in intimate partner relationships are

(1) losing access to resources from the relationship (e.g., sexual access) and (2) events that threaten access to those resources (e.g., another person flirting with your partner)

2 benefits of evolutionary theory

1) evolutionary perspective is in making precise predictions for what contexts might bring about intimate partner violence. (i.e.

sexual infidelity (perceived or actual), flirting outside the relationship, love triangles, when the perceived attractiveness or desirability of the two partners are not similar, and in families involving stepchildren)

2) provides a grounded theory from which to understand other intimate partner relationship facts such as why stalking is so prevalent and why women tend to stay in abusive relationships

Why Do Battered Women Stay? MYTHS

myths include that a battered woman has a masochistic desire to be beaten, that she is emotionally disturbed, that the violence cannot be as bad as she claims, woman partially to blame

Walker (1979) proposed that there is a three-phase cycle of abuse that occurs.

1. Tension building phase occurring prior to the assault with increasing conflict and stress between partners

Interpersonal tension, poor communication, victim feels fearful

2. Acting-out phase when the batterer engages in intimate partner violence

Violent, abusive incident

3. Honeymoon phase, when the batterer apologizes and often promises not to engage in future violence

Abuser apologies, affection between partners, calm, lack of tension

Cycle repeats itself with honeymoon sometimes disappearing

Critiques: abuse claim not as predictable

Another reason why some women may remain in abusive relationships is

learned helplessness.

I.e. dogs "gave up," a finding that has parallels with how humans deal with unavoidable aversive stimuli.

Critiqued because some women may be passive on purpose in order to placate their abusers. In addition, many women do make active attempts to leave their abusive partners.

According to the Violence Against Women Survey (Johnson, 1996), 42% of women left their abusive partners for a short while or permanently.

PRIMARY REASONS FOR LEAVING + RETURNING

experiencing an increase in severity, having children witness the violence, and reporting the abuse to the police

70% of women who left their abusive partners returned home at least once.

for the sake of the children (31%)

to give the relationship another chance (24%)

the partner promised to change (17%)

lack of money or a place to go (9%)

Environmental, social, and psychological barriers FOR VICTIMS

1. Environmental- including access to money, a place to go, and support from the criminal justice system

2. Social- many women return because they do not want their children to suffer

3. Psychological- felt safer remaining in the relationship than leaving, because they knew what the abuser was doing

Family violence + animal maltreatment:

41% of men arrested for intimate partner violence have committed at least one act of animal abuse compared to only 1.5% of the men from the general population

A Heterogeneous Population: Typologies of Male Batterers

family-only, dysphoric/borderline, and generally violent/ antisocial.

Family-only batterer:

A male spousal batterer who is typically not violent outside the home, does not show much psychopathology, and does not possess negative attitudes supportive of violence

Engage in least amount of violence, no disturbance in attachment to his partner and most common, (50% batterers this type)

Dysphoric/borderline batterer:

A male spousal batterer who exhibits some violence outside the family, is depressed, has borderline personality traits, and has problems with jealousy

engages in moderate to severe violence, some extra-familial violence and criminal behaviour, moderate problems with impulsivity and alcohol and drug use

attachment style that would be best described as preoccupied, makes up 25% of batterers

Generally violent/antisocial batterer:

A male spousal batterer who is violent outside the home, engages in other criminal acts, has drug and alcohol problems, has impulse-control problems, and possesses violence-supportive beliefs

Moderate to severe, antisocial and narcissistic personality features, dismissive attachment style, 25% of batterers

Typologies of Female Batterers

1. Partner-Only (PO) group, believed to use reactive violence primarily out of fear and self-defence.

2. Generally Violent (GV) group- demonstrated more instrumental violence, reported more traumatic symptoms, and experienced more physical abuse from their mothers compared to PO women

Criminal Justice Response- Mandatory charging policies:

Policies that give police the authority to lay charges against a suspect where there are reasonable and probable grounds to believe a domestic assault has occurred

3 Police Responses

separation (order for suspect to leave premises for at least eight hours), mediation (provide advice to victim), or arrest.

arrest worked as a deterrent only for those men who had something to lose.

Does Treatment of Male Batterers Work?

The two most common forms of intervention are feminist psychoeducational group therapy (also referred to as the Duluth model) and cognitive-behavioural group therapy

Duluth model

the primary cause of intimate partner violence is patriarchal ideology

- often has a blaming, punitive orientation, which can result in very high drop-out rate

Criticisms: 1) men to women 2) one-sided 3) shaming

Cognitive-behavioural therapy (CBT)

which subscribes to the beliefs that violence is a learned behaviour and that use of violence is reinforcing for the offender because he or she obtains victim compliance and reduces feelings of tension

Effectiveness:

no differences in efficacy among the three treatment types in terms of recidivism rates

- should tailor treatment- Bowen and Gilchrist (2006) identified participant characteristics that predict program attrition, including youthful age, having served a previous prison sentence, and self-reporting a low level of partner violence.

- include more self-determined goals

strongest predictors of treatment completion

employment (employed more likely to complete compared to unemployed), age (older more likely to complete compared to younger), and referral source (court-mandated more likely to complete than non-court-mandated)

Criminal harassment:

Crime that involves repeatedly following, communicating with, watching, or threatening a person directly or indirectly

- must fear safety

The following variables were significantly related to violence:

1. Clinical variables. Substance-abuse disorder, personality disorder, and the absence of a psychotic disorder predicted violence.

2. Case-related variables. A former intimate relationship between offender and victim and threats toward the victim predicted violence.

Stalking offenders who are at the greatest risk for continuing stalking behaviour after release from prison are those who have both a

personality disorder and a history of substance abuse

4 Typologies of Stalkers

Ex-intimate stalker, Love-obsessional stalker, delusional, grudge

1. Ex-intimate stalker

A stalker who engages in stalking after an intimate relationship breaks up

Most common

individual who is disgruntled or estranged, and unable to let go of his or her partner

history of domestic violence in intimate relationships

2. Love-obsessional stalker:

A stalker who has intense emotional feelings for the victim but who has never had an intimate relationship with the victim

Rare

No symptoms of depression or psychosis

3. Delusional stalker

A stalker who suffers from delusions and wrongly believes he or she has a relationship with the victim

Rare, sometimes (celeb, media figure, or politician)

often diagnosed with delusional disorders, schizophrenia, or bipolar disorder

4. grudge stalker:

stalker who knows and is angry at the victim for some perceived injustice

Rare

Definition of Sexual Assault - evolved

1. 1993- rape: all offences lumped:

Criminal Code of Canada at that time, "a male person commits rape when he has sexual intercourse with a female person who is not his wife . . . without her consent"

NOW MORE INCLUSIVE

Sexual assult- became defined as any nonconsensual sexual act by either a male or female person to either a male or female person, regardless of the relationship between the people involved.

3 LEVELS OF SEVERITY- sexual assault

1. Simple Sexual Assult (max 10 years)

2. Sexual Assult with a Weapon or causing bodily harm (max 14 years)

3. Aggravated Sexual Assault (max life)

Consequences for Victims:

Psychological and physical symptoms

rape trauma syndrome: A group of symptoms or behaviours that are frequent after-effects of

having been raped

rape trauma syndrome: 2 PHASES

Acute Crisis Phase

Symptoms are severe including; fear, anxiety and depression

Commonly self-blame, high levels of distrust and self-doubt

Long-term reactions

More protracted

A quarter of women who have been raped do not significantly recover, even after several years

include the development of phobias, such as a fear of being left alone or a fear of leaving the house

development of sexual problems and depression

victims make dramatic changes in their lifestyles

Chronic physical health symptoms (e.g., back pain, muscle tension, headaches, sleep problems) that develop as a result of rape

The psychological consequences of rape victimization also include post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

4 symptom clusters

1. Avoidance of stimuli

2. Reoccuring distressing memories

3. Negatively altered cognition and mood

4. Altered state of arousal and reactivity

8 Classification of Sexual Offenders: FIRST 3

1. Voyeur: : Someone who obtains sexual gratification by observing unsuspecting people, usually strangers, who are naked, in the process of undressing, or engaging in sexual activity

2. Exhibitionist: Someone who obtains sexual gratification by exposing his or her genitals to strangers

3. Rapist: person who sexually assults victims over 16 years old

8 Classification of Sexual Offenders: MIDDLE 3

4. Pedophile: Person whose primary sexual orientation is toward children

5. Child molester: Someone who has actually sexually molested a child

6. Intra-familial child molester: Someone who sexually abuses his or her own biological children or children for whom he or she assumes a parental role, such as a stepfather or live-in boyfriend. Also known as incest offenders

8 Classification of Sexual Offenders: LAST 2

7. Incest offender: Someone who sexually abuses his or her own biological children or children for whom he or she assumes a parental role, such as a stepfather or live-in boyfriend. Also known as intra-familial child molesters

8. Extra-familial child molester: Someone who sexually abuses children not related to him or her

5 Rapist Typologies- first 2

1. The opportunistic type commits sexual assault that is generally impulsive, void of sexual fantasies, controlled primarily by situational or contextual factors, and void of gratuitous violence. These offenders often engage in other criminal behaviours.

2. The pervasively angry type has a high level of anger that is directed toward both men and women. These offenders tend to be impulsive, use unnecessary force, cause serious victim injury, and be void of sexual fantasies.

5 Rapist Typologies- last 3

3. The sexual type is distinguished from the other types in that these offenders' crimes are primarily motivated by sexual preoccupation or sexual fantasies.

4. The sadistic type is differentiated from the sexual type in that there must be a sadistic element to the offence.

5. The fifth type is labelled vindictive. In contrast to the pervasively angry type, the vindictive rapist's anger is focused solely on women. These offenders are not impulsive, nor are they preoccupied by sexual fantasies. The goal of this type of rapist is to demean and degrade the victim.

FURTHER BROKEN DOWN..

Opportunistic, sexual and vindictive further divided by social competence

Sadistic is broken down overt or muted based on gratuitous violenc