memory and cognition

short-term memory

limited in capacity (7±2 - recall better for digits than letters)

phonological loop

briefly hold auditory info (repeating phone number before dialing, saying passwords to yourself over and over)

visuospatial sketchpad

briefly holds info about appearance or location

encoding

getting info into memory, forming memory code

storage

retaining memory over time

retrieval

recovering info from memory stores

multi-store model

sensory input recorded as fleeting sensory memory → processed in short-term memory → with rehearsal encoded into long-term memory for later retrieval

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of info about space, time, frequency, well-learned info

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort (rehearsal)

semantic memory

facts and general knowledge (type of long-term memory)

episodic memory

personally experienced events (type of long-term memory)

explicit/declarative memory

conscious, effortful (events, facts)

processed in hippocampus (general knowledge, facts, experiences) that can be consciously related

implicit/nondeclarative memory

unconscious, automatic (procedural, skills)

processed by cerebellum and other brain areas, motor and cognitive skills

recall

retrieving info from memory without prompts

recognition

identifying info when its presented

long-term memory

holds info for greater time - hours, days, years

priming

activation of particular associations in memory, often unconscious

exposure to stimulus leads to connections with others

exposure to a stimulus influences an individual's response to a later stimulus, often unconsciously

prospective memory

ability to remember to perform a task in the future

autobiographical memory

detailed and vivid memory stored on one occasion and retained for a lifetime

usually associated with important historical or autobiographical events

tip of the tongue phenomenon

retrieval doesn’t produce a complete response but rather parts

anterograde amnesia

loss of memories for events that occurred after the onset of amnesia

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories for events that occured prior the onset of amnesia

primacy effects

when exposure to a list is followed by a long delay, people recall the first items on a list better (attention on first terms, STM not helping)

massed practice

reherarsal without breaks over a short period of time

distributed practice

breaking practice up into multiple short sessions over a longer period of time

mnemonic devices

memory technique to help your brain better encode and recall important info with acronyms

method of loci

placing items in familiar locations (walk through to remember)

peg word

memory aid that uses vivid imagery and/or words with numbers

hierarchies

form of chunking: used to learn concepts; organizational encoding

context-dependent memory

ability to recall is improved when in the same context as initial

state-dependent memory

remembering information is improved when you are in the same internal physiological or psychological state as when you learned it

mood-dependent memory

memories are biased by emotion - amygdala is powerful at encoding and “primes” material

testing effects

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading info

proactive interference

forward acting, prior info disrupts the recall of new info

retroactive interference

backward acting, new info disrupts the recall of old info

memory construction

form of remembering marked by recreation of an experience that has only been partially stored in memory

source amnesia

retaining the memory of the event but not the context of it

convergent thinking

focusing on one answer

divergent thinking

consider multiple options

prototypes

most typical instance or best example of a particular concept

algorithm

step by step procedure that guarantees a solution, methodical; logical, may be time consuming

heuristic

tried and true strategy, info-processing shortcut, make judgments and solve problems efficiently, may be error prone

representative heuristic

tendency to judge the likelihood of things in term of how well they conform to one’s prototypes

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory

gambler’s fallacy

cognitive bias that the probability of the event changes after a series of outcomes

sunk-cost fallacy

cognitive bias that one continues to invest time, memory, effort, into something that is no longer beneficial (even if costs outweigh benefits)

mental set/schema

tendency to approach a problem with a mind-set that has worked in the past

functional fixedness

inability to see a problem from new perspective

framing effects

how an issue is presented or framed can significantly affect thought processes, judgments, and decisions

infantile amnesia

inability to remember events that occurred in early childhood

alzheimer’s disease

a progressive brain disorder that causes memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes

assimilation

process of incorporating new information or experiences into existing mental frameworks or schemas without changing them

chunking

cognitive process of grouping individual pieces of information into larger, more manageable units

constructive memory

process of actively reconstructing and interpreting past events based on existing knowledge, beliefs, and expectations

creativity

the ability to generate novel and valuable ideas, solutions, or products

deep encoding

processing info based on meaning rather than appearance or sound

shallow encoding

processing info based on appearance or sound rather than meaning

serial position effect

the tendency for individuals to remember items better when they are presented at the beginning or end of a list

echoic memory

automatic retention of auditory sensory information for a short period, typically 2–4 seconds

elaborative rehearsal

actively processing and integrating new information with existing knowledge to enhance memory retention

encoding failure

information is not properly processed and stored in long-term memory

forgetting curve

a graphical representation that depicts the decline in memory retention over time

accommodation

cognitive process of altering existing schemas or creating new ones to incorporate new information that doesn't fit with previous understandings

eyewitness testimony

the verbal account given by an individual who has witnessed a crime or other significant event

elizabeth loftus

cognitive psychologist known for her research demonstrating that human memory is malleable and susceptible to distortion

iconic memory

sensory store for visual information that lasts for about one second after the stimulus is removed

imagination inflation

repeatedly imagining an event increases the likelihood of believing that it actually occurred

long-term potentiation

a long-lasting enhancement in signal transmission between two neurons that results from stimulating them simultaneously

memory consolidation

the process by which new memories are transformed from short-term storage into long-term storage in the brain

memory retention

the ability to store and retrieve information over time

metacognition

the ability to think about one's own thoughts and cognitive processes

procedural memory

a type of long-term memory that stores information about how to perform tasks or skills

levels of processing model

memory recall depends on the depth of cognitive processing, with deeper, more meaningful processing leading to better retention

recency effect

individuals tend to remember and weigh more heavily the most recent information or events, compared to earlier ones

rehearsal

repeatedly practicing or reviewing information to enhance memory retention

relearning

reacquiring knowledge or skills that were previously learned but have been forgotten or lost over time

repression

individual unconsciously blocks out distressing memories, thoughts, or experiences from their awareness

retrieval cues

stimuli or hints that help us recall information from memory

sensory memory

a brief storage system in the brain that holds sensory information for a very short period (typically less than a second)

spacing effect

improved retention of information when it is studied over time in multiple sessions

massed practice

where a skill or material is practiced repeatedly in a short period of time, with little to no breaks in between

working memory

temporarily stores and manipulates information for short periods, typically up to 30 seconds

structural, phonemic, semantic

three levels of processing information - one is deep and two are shallow

hippocampus

plays a crucial role in memory and spatial navigation