DE U.S. History: Exploration to Colonization

Columbian Exchange

The widespread exchange of plants, animals, diseases, and ideas between the Americas, Europe, and Africa following Christopher Columbus's voyages in 1492.

The Three Sisters

Refers to the trio of crops—corn, beans, and squash—grown together by Native American agricultural societies, particularly in the Eastern Woodlands.

Cahokia

A large Native American city near modern-day St. Louis, center of Mississippian culture, thriving around 1050-1350 AD.

Lenape

Also known as the Delaware, a Native American tribe in the Northeastern Woodlands, playing a significant role in early colonial history.

Potlatch

A ceremonial feast practiced by indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest, reinforcing social status and alliances within the community.

Hundred Years' War

A series of conflicts between England and France (1337-1453) that encouraged exploration for new trade routes and resources.

Reconquista

The campaign by Christian kingdoms in Spain to reclaim territory from Muslim rule, ending in 1492, inspiring Spanish exploration.

Henry the Navigator

A Portuguese prince who sponsored early voyages of exploration along the African coast in the 15th century, initiating the Age of Discovery.

Astrolabe

A navigation tool used by explorers to determine latitude by measuring the angle of celestial bodies, crucial in European maritime exploration.

Caravel

A small, highly maneuverable ship developed by the Portuguese in the 15th century for long-distance sea voyages.

Vasco de Gama

A Portuguese explorer who sailed around the Cape of Good Hope in 1498, reaching India and establishing a sea route for trade with Asia.

Christopher Columbus

An Italian navigator whose 1492 voyage led to the first sustained contact between Europe and the Americas, enabling European colonization.

Taino

The indigenous people of the Caribbean who first encountered Columbus in 1492, decimated by disease and Spanish exploitation.

Bartolome de las Casas

A Spanish priest who advocated for better treatment of Native Americans and condemned the brutalities of the encomienda system.

Encomiendas

A labor system in the Americas where colonists extracted labor and tribute from Native Americans, often leading to exploitation and abuse.

Aztecs

A powerful Native American empire in present-day Mexico, conquered by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés in 1521.

Tenochtitlan

The capital of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco, destroyed by the Spanish.

Hernán Cortés

A Spanish conquistador who led the expedition causing the fall of the Aztec Empire, exploiting divisions among indigenous peoples.

Montezuma

The last emperor of the Aztec Empire, captured by Hernán Cortés during the Spanish conquest.

Incas

A large empire in the Andes Mountains of South America, conquered by Francisco Pizarro in 1533.

Francisco Pizarro

The Spanish conquistador who led the conquest of the Inca Empire in South America, capturing its capital, Cuzco.

Sistemas de Castas

The caste system in Spanish America creating a social hierarchy based on racial and ethnic categories.

Peninsulares

Spaniards born in Spain holding the highest positions in colonial society in Spanish America.

Criollos

People of Spanish descent born in the Americas, below Peninsulares in the social hierarchy.

Mestizos

People of mixed European and Native American descent in the Spanish colonies, occupying a middle position in the racial hierarchy.

Mestizaje

The cultural and biological mixing of Europeans, Africans, and Native Americans, creating new identities in the Americas.

Huguenots

French Protestants who fled to the New World to escape religious persecution after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes in 1685.

Protestant Reformation

A 16th-century religious movement challenging the authority of the Catholic Church, leading to religious and political upheavals in Europe.

"Black Legend"

Propaganda portraying Spain as particularly brutal in its treatment of Native Americans, especially compared to other European colonizers.

Northwest Passage

A theoretical sea route through North America to the Pacific Ocean, sought by European explorers for faster trade with Asia.

Samuel de Champlain

A French explorer who founded Quebec in 1608 and played a key role in French colonization of North America.

Métis(sage)

People of mixed French and Native American heritage in French Canada, particularly involved in the fur trade.

Henry Hudson

An English explorer employed by the Dutch who explored the river that would be named after him in 1609, establishing Dutch claims to New Amsterdam.

Joint-stock companies

Businesses owned by shareholders that funded exploration and colonization, such as the Virginia Company.

Dutch West India Company

A Dutch trading company established in 1621 to control trade and colonization in the Americas, particularly in New Netherland.

Wampum

Beads made from shells, used by Native American tribes for ceremonial purposes and later as currency in trade with European settlers.

Treaty of Tordesillas

A 1494 agreement dividing newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal, brokered by the Pope.

Jesuits

A Catholic religious order active in converting Native Americans in French and Spanish colonies.

Quilombos

Communities in Brazil formed by escaped African slaves, symbols of resistance to colonial oppression.

"Discourse on Western Planting"

A 1584 document advocating for English colonization in North America, emphasizing economic and strategic benefits.

Virginia Company

A joint-stock company chartered by King James I in 1606 to establish settlements in North America, founding Jamestown.

Privateering

The practice of authorizing privately owned ships to attack enemy vessels during wartime, disrupting Spanish shipping.

Spanish Armada

A large fleet sent by Spain in 1588 to invade England, defeated by the English navy, establishing England as a dominant maritime power.

Roanoke Island

The site of the 'Lost Colony' established by the English in 1587, which mysteriously disappeared by 1590.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, established in 1607 in present-day Virginia, facing early struggles including famine and conflicts with Native Americans.

Powhatan Confederacy

A powerful alliance of Algonquian-speaking Native American tribes in Virginia, led by Chief Powhatan, with tense relations with Jamestown settlers.

John Smith

A leader of the Jamestown colony who played a key role in its survival by securing food and establishing trade with the Powhatan Confederacy.

Headright Policy

A land grant system in Virginia promising 50 acres of land for each person brought to the colony, encouraging migration.

Virginia House of Burgesses

The first representative legislative assembly in the American colonies, established in 1619, marking an early step toward self-government.

Puritans

A religious group seeking to purify the Church of England from Catholic influences, migrating to New England in the early 17th century for religious freedom.

Calvinists

Followers of John Calvin, emphasizing predestination and strict moral codes, influencing Puritans.

Great Migration

The mass migration of Puritans from England to the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 1630s to escape religious persecution.

Barbados

A Caribbean island where English planters developed a sugar economy in the 17th century based on African slave labor, influencing slavery in the American colonies.

Middle Passage

The horrific sea voyage bringing enslaved Africans to the Americas as part of the Atlantic slave trade.

King Philip's War

A brutal conflict (1675-1678) between New England colonists and Native American tribes led by Metacom (King Philip), resulting in loss of Native land and power.

Olaudah Equiano

A former enslaved African who wrote a famous autobiography advocating for abolition.

Paternal Dominion

Male authority over women, children, and servants in colonial society, reflecting patriarchal structures.

Oliver Cromwell

Leader of the Parliamentary forces during the English Civil War, ruling England as Lord Protector from 1653 to 1658.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

Founded by Puritans in 1630, a major center of Puritan religious life and self-governance.

Charles I

The English king whose conflicts with Parliament led to the English Civil War and his eventual execution.

Navigation Act of 1651

A law controlling colonial trade passed by the English Parliament to benefit England economically.

Charles II

King of England restored to the throne in 1660, marking the beginning of the Restoration period.

James II

The Catholic king of England (1685-1688) overthrown in the Glorious Revolution for his policies and disregard for Parliament.

Glorious Revolution

The 1688 overthrow of King James II establishing a constitutional monarchy with increased parliamentary power in England.

Metacom/King Philip

Leader of the Wampanoag tribe during King Philip's War, resulting in defeat for the Native coalition.

Dominion of New England

A short-lived administrative union of New England colonies created by James II in 1686, dissolved after the Glorious Revolution.

William and Mary

Rulers of England following the Glorious Revolution, accepting the English Bill of Rights to limit monarchy power.

English Bill of Rights

Passed in 1689, outlining the rights of Parliament and individuals to limit monarchy powers.

Cecilius Calvert, Lord Baltimore

Founder of the Maryland colony as a haven for Catholics in 1632, also home to Protestants.

Thomas Hooker

Puritan minister who founded Connecticut, advocating for more democratic governance.

Roger Williams

Religious dissenter who founded Rhode Island in 1636, advocating for separation of church and state and religious tolerance.

Anne Hutchinson

Puritan woman who challenged church authority in Massachusetts, leading to her trial and banishment.

William Penn

Quaker who founded Pennsylvania in 1681 based on religious tolerance and democratic governance.

Quakers

Religious group known as the Society of Friends, believing in equality, pacifism, and religious tolerance.

Lords Proprietor of Carolina

Eight English nobles granted control of the Carolina colony in 1663, operating it as a proprietary colony.

Pequot War

Conflict in 1637 between New England settlers and the Pequot tribe over trade and land, nearly destroying the Pequot people.

Salem Witch Trials

Series of trials and executions in 1692 in Massachusetts driven by religious hysteria and accusations of witchcraft.

Bacon's Rebellion

1676 rebellion in Virginia led by Nathaniel Bacon against Governor William Berkeley's administration.

Sarah Drummond

Wife of a Bacon's Rebellion leader who supported the rebellion, reflecting discontent among colonists.

Pueblo Revolt of 1680

Successful uprising by the Pueblo people against Spanish colonization in present-day New Mexico.

Yamasee War

1715 conflict between South Carolina colonists and Native tribes over trade, land, and slavery.

Walking Purchase of 1737

Controversial land deal in Pennsylvania where colonial officials claimed more land from the Lenape than agreed, based on a fraudulent interpretation.