English LangLit IB

888 strategy in conclusion

• Relate - concisely connect to the essay question

• Summate - succinctly (in a brief and clearly expressed manner) summarise what the text has achieved

• Evaluate - make a justified, academic (powerfully, strongly, effectively, successfully, striking, strongly, convincingly, memorably, impactfully) judgement on how successfully the author have achieved their purpose

ALLUSION

is an expression or phrase in one text that calls to mind an expression or phrase from another text without direct reference

• Effect: Enriches the text by drawing on shared cultural or historical references, adding layers of meaning.

• Example: “A modern-day David confronting Goliath.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The allusion to the biblical story of David and Goliath elevates the narrative, framing the conflict as an epic struggle between the underdog and a powerful adversary.”

  • “By referencing a well-known historical or literary figure, the writer invites the reader to draw connections and deepen their understanding of the issue.”

  • “The allusion imbues the text with a sense of tradition, enhancing its emotional resonance and highlighting the timeless nature of the struggle.”

AMPLIFICATION

repeats a word or expression while adding more detail to it, in order to emphasize something.

• I know I have but the body of a weak and feeble woman; but I have the heart of a king, and of a king of England, too. (Queen Elizabeth I)

ANADIPLOSIS

repeats one or several words that end one clause to begin another.

• Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state; servants of fame; and servants of business. (Francis Bacon)

• They call for you: the general who became a slave; the slave who became a gladiator; the gladiator who defied an Emperor. (from the movie Gladiator)

ANALOGY

is a comparison of two things or abstract ideas. A simile is an expressed analogy. A metaphor is an implied one. 

Never, never and never again shall it be that this beautiful land will again experience the oppression of one by another and suffer the indignity of being the skunk of the world. Inaugural address, Nelson Mandela, 1994.

ANAPHORA

repeats the same word or words at the beginning of successive phrases, or sentences.

• But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground . . . (Abraham Lincoln)

• I needed a drink, I needed a lot of life insurance, I needed a vacation, I needed a home in the country. What I had was a coat, a hat and a gun. (from Farewell, My Lovely)

• “Through anaphora, the writer reinforces the importance of each demand, creating a rhythmic flow that highlights the speaker’s persistence and commitment.”

ANECDOTE 

is a small story or tale that is interesting, humorous or biographical. Anecdotes often contain a lesson for life.

• Effect: Personalizes the issue, making it more relatable and emotionally engaging for the reader.

• Example: “I remember the day my brother lost his job...”

• How to discuss:

  • “The anecdote humanizes the argument, allowing the reader to connect emotionally with the experience being described.”

  • “By sharing a personal story, the writer invites the reader to empathize with the characters involved, deepening the emotional resonance of the message.”

  • “The anecdotal element fosters a sense of intimacy and vulnerability, which can make the reader feel more personally invested in the issue.”

ANTISTROPHE

Repeats the same word or phrase at the end of successive clauses.

• In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo -- without warning . In 1935, Italy invaded Ethiopia-- without warning. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria -- without warning . In 1939,

ANTITHESIS

is a rhetorical device in which two ideas are contrasted, using parallel syntactical structures.

• One small step for man, one giant leap for mankind. Neil Armstrong, 1969.

• And so, my fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country. Inaugural address, John F. Kennedy, 1961.

CHIASMUS

is a very commonly used and effective technique where the words in one phrase or clause are reversed in the next.

• But just because you're born in the slum does not mean the slum is born in you, and you can rise above it if your mind is made up. (Jesse Jackson(

• It's not the men in my life that counts: it's the life in my men. (Mae West)

• The true test is not the speeches the president delivers; it's if the president delivers on the speeches. (Hilary Clinton)

CLIMAX

(also called gradatio) is the arrangement of words or phrases in order of increasing importance or emphasis. 

• And from the crew of Apollo 8, we close with good night, good luck, a merry Christmas, and God bless all of you, all of you on the good earth. (Frank Borman, Apollo 8 astronaut)

• And now I ask you ladies and gentlemen, brothers and sisters, for the good of all of us, for the love of this great nation, for the family of America, for the love of God; please make this nation remember how futures are built. (Mario Cuomo, Governor of New York)

HYPOPHORA

is a figure of reasoning in which one or more questions or objections is asked or stated and then answered by the speaker, reasoning aloud (the original 'rhetorical question’).

• enabling speakers to engage the audience, guide their thinking, and emphasize key points

• When the enemy struck on that June day of 1950, what did America do? It did what it always has done in all its times of peril. It appealed to the heroism of its youth. (General Dwight D. Eisenhower)

• You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, with all our might and with all the strength that God can give us; to wage war against a monstrous tyranny never surpassed in the dark, lamentable catalogue of human crime. That is our policy. You ask, what is our aim? I can answer in one word: It is victory, victory at all costs, victory in spite of all terror, victory, however long and hard the road may be. (We Shall Fight on the Beaches, Winston Churchill, 1940).

PARALLELISM

is a figure of balance identified by successive words or phrases with the same or very similar grammatical structure.

• Let every nation know, whether it wishes us well or ill, that we shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. (John F. Kennedy)

• Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I may remember. Involve me and I will learn. (Benjamin Franklin)

SYMPLOCE

repeats the first and last word or words in one phrase or sentence in one or more successive ones, thereby combining ANAPHORA and EPISTROPHE

• Much of what I say might sound bitter, but it's the truth. Much of what I say might sound like it's stirring up trouble, but it's the truth. Much of what I say might sound like it is hate, but it's the truth. (Malcolm X)

TRICOLON / TRIPARTITE / TRIADIC STRUCTURE

is the use of words, phrases, examples, or the beginnings or endings of phrases or sentences in threes.

• Creates a rhythmic flow and makes ideas more persuasive and memorable through repetition in sets of three.

• Example: “Fairness, freedom, and equality.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The tripartite structure emphasizes the core values of justice, making them more impactful and memorable for the reader.”

  • “The rule of three adds a rhetorical cadence to the statement, lending a sense of authority and balance to the writer’s argument.”

  • “By presenting these key concepts in a triadic format, the writer reinforces their importance and appeals to the reader’s sense of justice and equality.”

VARIED SENTENCE LENGTH

• We dedicate this day to all the heroes and heroines in this country and the rest of the world who sacrificed in many ways and surrendered their lives so that we could be free. Their dreams have become reality. (Inaugural address Nelson Mandela, 1994.)

IMAGERY AND SOUND

• Alliteration

  • Let us go forth to lead the land we love . . . (JFK)

  • We want no parlay with you and your grisly gang who work your wicked will… (Churchill)

  • Effect: Adds rhythm, musicality, and emphasis to specific phrases, enhancing the aesthetic quality of the text.

  • How to discuss:

    • “The repetition of the ‘s’ sound in the alliteration emphasizes the desolate atmosphere, enhancing the sense of quiet despair.”

    • “The use of alliteration enhances the lyrical quality of the sentence, making the portrayal of sorrow more poignant and memorable.”

    • “By employing alliteration, the writer draws attention to the bleakness of the scene, emphasizing the hopelessness of the setting.”

• Assonance 

  • I feel the need, the need for speed” (Top Gun) ….and anadiplosis

  • Effect: Adds rhythm, musicality, and emphasis to specific phrases, enhancing the aesthetic quality of the text.

• Metaphor

  • From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain has descended across the Continent. (Sir Winston Churchill)

  • The torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans. (JFK)

• Simile 

  • We're going to go through them like crap through a goose. (General Patton)

  • “The simile of hope as a flickering candle emphasizes its fragility and the precariousness of the situation.”

  • “By likening hope to a candle, the writer invokes imagery of light in darkness, symbolizing resilience in the face of adversity.”

  • “The comparison conveys the idea that hope is both vulnerable and essential, subtly reinforcing the theme of perseverance amidst suffering.”

• Olfactory, Visual, Tactile, Auditory, Gustatory.

• “The use of sensory imagery immerses the reader in the scene, making the described event feel immediate and real.”

• “Imagery of smoke and its haunting presence evokes a sense of dread, amplifying the emotional intensity of the narrative.”

• “By describing the environment in sensory terms, the writer heightens the reader’s emotional response and deepens the thematic exploration of loss and decay.”

Ethos

‘the author establishes ethos by…

What gives him or her the right to stand before the audience and deliver this message?

• The writer/text is:

  • trustworthy

  • credible

  • unbiased

  • verifiable

  • objective

  • valid

  • factual

  • well-sourced

  • ethical

  • informed

  • unimpeachable

Powerful ethos is created through the author’s:

• clear expertise

• well-selected evidence

• striking eloquence

• wide subject knowledge

LOGOS

‘The author builds a strong foundation of logos by…’

is an appeal to logic in rhetoric. It is when a speaker aims to convince an audience by presenting logical arguments.

• The writer’s/text’s arguments are:

  • coherent

  • rational

  • logical

  • plausible

  • compelling

  • persuasive

  • valid

  • systematic

  • analytical

  • informed

  • thoughtful

  • convincing

The use of logos appeals to the audience’s sense of:

• logic

• reson

• commonsense

PATHOS

‘The author evokes pathos in the audience by…’

is an appeal to emotion in rhetoric. It is when a speaker connects to the audience emotionally.

• The writer/text evokes/stirs/engenders… in the audience

  • empathy

  • shock

  • sympathy

  • hope

  • compassion

  • pity

  • fear

  • disgust

  • anger

• This pathos is evoked:

  • through the use of emotive language

  • by featuring a moving human interest story

  • through the composition of the portrait

Use PETAL to structure each argument can use PETA PETA for body paragraphs and then link later

• Point - key idea

• Evidence - quote/reference

• Technique - e.g. simile, word choice, juxtaposition

• Analyse - how techniques have shaped meaning/created effect

• Link - to the question/thesis statement/the writer’s intentions (purpose/theme/context/GI)

Stay relevant to the essay question

• Answer the question concisely in your INTRO

  • Write a statement that shows understanding of the essay question in connection to HOW it is presented in the text/texts

• Use the keyword from the question in topic sentences

  • Each main body topic sentence should define a relevant IDEA

• Link back to the question in your summative judgements

  • even better if this can be in light of a THESIS STATEMENT

• Answer the question and evaluate in your CONCLUSION

Use establishing phrases to begin arguments

• Firstly

• Initially

• To begin with

• In the exposition, the

• From the outset

• The author establishes that

• The dramatist creates

• The poet introduces

• the designer represents

• To begin, we can see that

• The infographic first puts in place

Use continuing phrases when developing a point

• Moreover

• Furthermore

• Secondly

• In addition

• Additionally

• Thirdly

• The writer also

• The writer continues to

• The writer furthers this idea by

• This idea is underscored by

Use contrasting or comparing link phrases

• However

• Conversely

• On the other hand

• Yet

• In contrast with

• Whereas

• Although the writer

• Similarly

• Likewise

• This creates parallels with

• In the same way

• Both texts

use analysis ‘signpost’ phrases to show awareness of the text as a construct

• The writer’s presentation/representation of

• The writer presents/depicts/portrays/illustrates that

• Here, the writer’s use of technique conveys/shows/suggests/implies that

• This technique illuminates/highlights/illustrates/emphasises

• The writer stresses/furthers/underlines/underscores/intensifies the idea that

Use evaluative phrases to show awareness of writer intentions / evaluate the writer’s presentation

• This is particularly important/significant/pertinent/noteworthy/striking because

• This is effective/fitting/apt/appropriate/apposite/powerful because

• This clearly/strongly/intensely illuminates

• This is key/integral/fundamental/crucial/central/critical to the writer’s presentation of

• this has a weighty/major/key/significant role in

• Significantly,

• This is important in terms of/insofar as suggesting that

• This enables/allows the writer to

• it should be noted that

• To some extent, this could be seen as

Language techniques

• Punctuation

• Word order

• Sentence type (Command, Statement, Question)

• Repetition

• Anaphora

• List

• Balanced construction

• Tripartite Structure

• Word choice

• Imagery

• Tone

Rhetorical/persuasive techniques

• Amplification

• Anaphora

• Anadiplosis

• Analogy

• Epistrophe

• Antithesis

• Chiasmus

• Climax

• Parallelism

• Tripartite structure

• Mode of address

• High Modality

  • u must

Literary Techniques

• Setting

• Mood

• Symbolism

• CHaracterisation

• Key indicient

• Contrast

• Conflict

• Juxtaposition

• Narrative Structure

• Narrative voice

• Pace

• Foreshadowing

• DIrect speech

Dramatic techniques

• Exposition

• inciting incident

• Rising action

• key scene

• pivotal scene

• Stage directions

• Aside

• Dramatic monologue

• Coliloquy

• Action

• Cliax

• Dénouement (Conflict/Tension Resolution)

• Dramatic Irony

• Props

• Dialogue

• Staging

Photographic/visual techniques

• Composition

• lighting

• exposure

• use of colour

• black and white

• depth of field

• sharp

• blurred / bokeh

• focus

• framing

• perspective

• contrast

• motion

• texture

Use tentative phrases to form theories or arguments

• It could be argued / one could argue / we could argue that

• this seems to suggest/imply/indicate/point toward

• One could see this as/interpret this as

• This culd suggest/imply/indicate that

• This perhaps reveals/exposes the writer’s feeling that

• This possibly conveys/furthers/emphasises

• Arguably,

• Surely,

• This may/this might

• One might note / consider the possibiility that

• You could also occasionally structure sentence in form of a question

  • Could the dramatist’s own voice be emerging here? One could argue….

• You could also use a command

  • Consider the writer’s use of / observe the manner in whcih…

Quote frequently and correctly

• At the end of a sentence with a colon: ‘Like this’

• As extra information in parenthesis. (‘Like this), -’Like this’-

• Embedded in your sentence

Use concludign link phrases in your summative sentences / at the start of conclusiojn

• Thus

• Therefore

• Hence

• And so

• By this means

• In so doing

• As a result of this

• Thereby allowing the writer to…

• Finally

• Ultimately

• To conclude

• In conclusion

Identify the purpose of the text

• Persuade

• Inform

• Reflect / rhetoric (well chosen rhetoric = carefully selected persuasive strategies that are particularly effective for the audience, purpose, and context of the text)

• Appeal

• Trust

• Educate

Interpret how content and style link to purpose

Content: WHAT

• What you say, e.g. key points, arguments, ideas, evidence, information

Style: HOW

• How you say it, e.g. narrative perspective, structure, use of vocabulary, word choice, imagery

Evaluate the choice of register

Register: formal or informal/colloquial expression

• Informal register will be created if you abbreviate, use slang, use second person pronoun

Coloquial

• Effect: Establishes informality, relatability, and a connection to the reader, often reflecting a specific social or cultural context.

• Example: “It’s time to step up and fix this mess.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The colloquial tone makes the text more accessible, creating an informal connection between the writer and a broader audience.”

  • “By using casual language, the writer invites the reader into a conversational space, making the argument feel more personal and direct.”

  • “The informal language contributes to the tone of urgency and frustration, making the call to action feel more immediate and relatable.”

Voice + tone

Voice: sense of who you are; your throughts and feelings and personality

• What you choose to say and how you express yourself are key in creating your voice

Tone:

Conveys the writer’s attitude; shapes emotional response; can build trust, provoke thought, or stir emotion.

“The author’s sarcastic tone undermines the credibility of experts, prompting readers to question authority.” “By adopting an empathetic tone, the writer builds trust and positions themselves as relatable and understanding.” “An assertive tone reinforces the seriousness of the issue and pressures the reader to align with the writer’s stance.” “The solemn (heavy + serious) tone invites the reader to reflect on their own sense of guilt or responsibility, creating a sense of introspection.” “By employing a sorrowful tone, the writer establishes an emotional connection with the audience, encouraging them to feel the weight of the issue at hand.” “The remorseful tone creates a somber atmosphere, urging the reader to consider the consequences of their inaction.”

Positive Words to describe attitude/voice/tone

• Interested: Showing curiosity or concern about something; paying attention.

• Commanding: Having an air of authority that demands respect.

• Sympathetic: Feeling, showing, or expressing compassion.

• Emphatic: Showing or giving emphasis; expressing something forcibly and clearly.

• Repentant: Feeling or expressing remorse for wrongdoing.

• Hearted (context-dependent): Having a specific kind of emotional disposition (e.g., "warm-hearted" for kind).

• Authoritative: Confident and commanding respect, often due to expertise or knowledge.

• Optimistic: Expecting the best possible outcome; hopeful.

• Confiding: Trusting someone enough to share secrets or personal information.

• Resolute: Firm and determined in purpose or belief.

• Wry: Dryly humorous or ironic in a mocking way.

• Hopeful: Feeling or inspiring optimism about the future.

• Upbeat: Cheerful and optimistic.

• Enthusiastic: Showing eager enjoyment or interest.

• Affectionate: Showing love or fondness.

• Joyful: Full of happiness and delight.

• Assertive: Confidently self-assured and standing up for oneself.

Negative Words to describe attitude/voice/tone

1. Derisive: Expressing contempt or ridicule.

2. Scathing: Severely critical or harsh in tone.

3. Mocking: Making fun of someone or something in a cruel or unkind way.

4. Threatening: Showing an intention to cause harm or danger.

5. Condemnatory: Strongly disapproving or criticizing.

6. Dismissive: Indicating that something or someone is not worth consideration.

7. Dismayed: Experiencing sudden disappointment or alarm.

8. Uneasy: Feeling anxious, troubled, or uncomfortable.

9. Dejected: Sad and dispirited; lacking hope or enthusiasm.

10. Imploring: Begging earnestly or desperately.

11. Disparaging: Expressing the opinion that something is of little worth; belittling.

12. Despairing: Showing or feeling complete loss of hope.

13. Skeptical: Doubting the truth or validity of something.

14. Glum: Sullenly or silently gloomy.

15. Solemn: Serious, dignified, and reflective.

16. Forlorn: Pitifully sad, abandoned, or lonely.

17. Contemptuous: Showing deep disdain or scorn.

18. Exasperated: Intensely irritated or frustrated.

19. Disdainful: Showing contempt or a lack of respect.

20. Remorseful: Feeling regret or guilt for wrongdoing.

21. Vitriolic: Filled with bitter criticism or malice.

22. Challenging: Testing one's abilities in a way that is demanding.

23. Desolate: Feeling or showing loneliness, misery, or abandonment.

24. Ironic: Happening in a way contrary to what is expected, often humorous or poignant.

25. Cynical: Distrustful of others' motives, believing people act out of self-interest.

26. Dubious: Hesitant or doubtful; suspicious of something's truth or value.

27. Sneering: Smirking or speaking in a way that shows contempt.

28. Pessimistic: Expecting the worst possible outcome; negative-minded.

29. Apprehensive: Anxious or fearful about something bad that may happen.

30. Cautious: Careful to avoid risks or danger.

31. Sardonic: Grimly mocking or cynical.

32. Nostalgic: Sentimental longing for the past, often with affection.

Evaluative language for critical judgements

• Compelling

• Successful

• persuasive

• Influential

• Pertinent

• Inappropriate

• Credible

• Convincing

• Substantial

• Emphatic

• Powerful

• Authentic

• Valid

• Engaging

• Clear

• Apt

• Strong

• Striking

• Coherent

High modality verbs

Useful for conveying a sense of conviction, obligation, or certainty in written or spoken communication

• must

• shall

• will

• should

• cannot

• must not

• have to

• will certainly

• must without a doubt

• need to

• ought to

• should always

• should strongly

• have to absolutely

• will definitely

• will undoubtedly

Writing for an audience technique: First person plural/inclusive pronoun

• We, our, us

• Establishes a sense of unity - creating tone

• To create a sense of togetherness with your audience

Writing for an audience technique: Mode of address

• The way in which the reader is spoken to by the writer

• Depends on the mode

  • Direct Address (e.g., “you,” “your”)

    • Establishes a personal connection between the writer and the reader, making the argument more persuasive.

    • “Direct address creates an intimate tone, compelling the reader to feel personally responsible for the outcome.”

    • “By speaking directly to the audience, the writer fosters a sense of immediacy, encouraging the reader to act on the issue presented.”

    • “The direct appeal strengthens the reader’s engagement with the text, making the argument feel more personal and urgent.”

  • Third-Person Address (e.g., “he,” “she,” “they”)

    • Creates distance, objectivity.

    • Helps tell a story or describe others without involving the reader

    • Often used in formal or narrative writing

  • First-Person Address (e.g., “I,” “we”)

    • Builds connection, trust.

    • Expresses opinion, experience, or emotion

  • Formal Address

    • Professional, authoritative.

    • Useful in academic or business contexts

    • Can create a sense of credibility or respect

  • Informal Address (e.g., slang, contractions, casual tone)

    • Makes the reader feel relaxed or friendly

    • Creates a conversational, engaging feel

    • Often used in blogs, social media, or advertising

  • Inclusive Address (e.g., “we,” “us”)

    • Effect: Fosters a sense of unity, implying that the reader is part of a collective group with shared goals or challenges.

    • Example: “We must act together.”

    • How to discuss:

      • “The use of ‘we’ creates a sense of solidarity between the writer and the reader, emphasizing collective responsibility.”

      • “Inclusive language unites the audience under a common purpose, reinforcing the message that action is required from everyone.”

      • “The writer’s use of inclusive pronouns strengthens the sense of common cause, urging the reader to see the issue as a shared concern.”

Writing for an audience technique: Tense

• Whether you use past, present or future

• Effect would vary depending on context

• Present tense will create a sense of immediacy

• Future tense might be used to suggest hope or optimism

• Shifting tense can be an effective way of signposting between a current situation and a future situation

Writing for an audience technique: Use of evidence

• Facts, quotations, statistics, references to respected sources

• Consolidates arguments + shows evidence of research - creating tone

• Key in enhancing ethos in a persuasive essay

• Effect: Provides authority and credibility, appealing to the reader’s logical reasoning (logos).

• Example: “Over 30% of the population lives below the poverty line.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The use of statistical evidence lends the argument an air of objectivity, making the reader more likely to trust the writer’s claims.”

  • “The presentation of concrete data strengthens the writer’s credibility, appealing to the reader’s logical faculties.”

  • “By citing statistics, the writer appeals to the rational mind, grounding the emotional argument in verifiable facts.”

Writing for an audience technique: Illustrative detail

• Including a real life story

• Enables the reader to picture the event or characters described - creating tone

• at the opening of a persuasive speech to gain the reader’s attention by including a real life ‘human interest’ story

Writing for an audience technique: Anecdote

• Short, true, entertaining story

• Human interest features like this engage our natural reader curiosity - creating tone

• In an argumentative essay to both include evidence and liven up the essay, engaging the reader

Writing for an audience technique: Statement

• Sentence stating a fact or opinion

• Creates a sense of conviction - creating tone

• A short statement clinching an argument could be juxtaposed effectively with a long, compley preceding sentence

Writing for an audience technique: Command/order/imperative

• Sentence that contains an imperative: you, we must act

• Engages/directly involves the reader - creating tone

• In a persuasive essay or speech to create a sense of urgency

• Effect: Creates a sense of urgency, often motivating the reader to take action or adopt a particular viewpoint.

• Example: “Act now before it's too late.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The use of the imperative ‘Act now’ adds a sense of immediacy to the text, compelling the reader to take action.”

  • “By using a command, the writer creates a direct call to the reader, urging them to confront the issue at hand without delay.”

  • “The imperative tone establishes authority and urgency, pushing the reader to feel a moral obligation to act promptly.”

Writing for an audience technique: Imperative

• Must, need, will

• creates a sense of urgency or conviction - creating tone

Writing for an audience technique: Rhetorical question

• Effect: Forces the reader to engage actively with the text and often guides them to a specific conclusion.

• Example: “How can we remain silent in the face of such injustice?”

• How to discuss:

  • “The rhetorical question implies a moral judgment, leading the reader to question their own stance on the issue.”

  • “By posing this question, the writer encourages the reader to reflect on the implications of silence, subtly pressuring them toward a position of action.”

  • “The rhetorical question serves as a direct appeal to the reader’s conscience, prompting them to consider their own complicity in the issue.”

Writing for an audience technique: Expanding clause / sentence length

• It is wrong, it is incredibly cruel and, most of all, it is an evil and barbaric custom

• Creates a climactic effect - creating tone

• In a persuasive speech to build up to a more powerful and stirring climax

Writing for an audience technique: List

• Several points together either separated by commas or semicolons:

  • it is wrong, it is incredibly cruel and, most of all, it is an evil and barbaric custom

• Emphasises / underscores / adds impact to (always paraphrase what is being emphasised) - creating tone

• To stress / emphasise how much of something there is, e.g. in an advert a list might emphasise all the reasons why you should buy a particular product

Writing for an audience technique: Repetition

• Repeated words or phrases

• Emphasises - creating tone

• Adds impact to a key idea

E.g.

• “The repeated phrase ‘We demand’ not only emphasizes the urgency of the speaker’s call but also instills a sense of collective action among the audience.”

• “The repetition of this phrase builds a sense of momentum, energizing the reader and evoking a call to action.”

Writing for an audience technique: Balanced construction (parallel structure/patterning/repeated syntactical structure)

• arranging two or more words, clauses or sentences using the same types of words (e.g. pronoun, verb, noun) in the same order: I came; I saw; I conquered

• She was very strong and very brave

• Either emphasises two or more corresponding points (e.g. two negative points) or highlights the contrast between two opposite points (e.g. a positive and a negative) - creating tone

• This could be used in a balanced essay that discusses two sides of an issue in order to highlight the contrast between two viewpoints

Writing for an audience technique: Juxtaposition

• To place two things (e.g. two images, two points, two types of sentence) side by side

• Effect: Highlights contrasting ideas or elements to emphasize differences and bring attention to specific issues.

• Example: “While some dine on delicacies, others search for scraps.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The stark juxtaposition between the privileged and the impoverished intensifies the reader’s awareness of social inequality.”

  • “By contrasting luxury and deprivation, the writer forces the reader to confront the harsh realities of class disparity.”

  • “The juxtaposition serves as a critique of societal values, encouraging the reader to reflect on the moral implications of such inequalities.”

Writing for an audience technique: Types of ‘structure’ to discuss in an essay

Cyclical structure

• When an essay (or paragraph within an essay) opens with an image, anecdote or idea that it then links back to in the intro or end

• Creates a sense of symmetry and therefore is an effective way of both establishing and concluding an argument - creating tone

• Might be used in a reflective essay to create an effective introduction + conclusion, beginning with a human interest story (anecdote) which you then finish your essay by linking back to

Contrast / Juxtaposition

• Two very different scenes or ideas placed near each other.

• 💡 Effect: Sharpens the difference between two ideas, which makes the reader reflect on injustice, hypocrisy, privilege, etc.

• ✏ Example: “The contrast between joyful celebration and silent mourning forces the audience to consider the unequal distribution of happiness and suffering.”

Zoom-In / Zoom-Out

• Starts with something small/personal, then moves to something large/global (or vice versa).

• 💡 Effect: Helps readers connect big social issues to personal stories (or the other way around), increasing emotional impact.

• ✏ Example: “Beginning with a single mother’s struggle before shifting to national statistics encourages the audience to see the human face behind the numbers.”

Chronological / Non-linear Structure

• Tells things in time order, or not in time order (flashbacks, flashforwards).

• 💡 Effect: Helps build a sense of reflection, memory, or inevitability.

• ✏ Example: “The flashback to a peaceful childhood contrasts the chaos of the present, prompting readers to mourn what was lost.”

Paragraphing & Pacing

• Short sentences, long flowing ones, a sudden shift in tone — all part of structure.

• 💡 Effect: Changes mood, adds emphasis, slows us down to think.

• ✏ Example: “The single-line paragraph isolates the question ‘What if it were your child?’ making it hit harder and forcing the reader to pause.”

Repetition Across the Text

• Words, phrases, ideas repeated at different points.

• 💡 Effect: Reinforces a message or idea, drills it into the reader’s mind.

• ✏ Example: “The repeated use of ‘we must remember’ throughout the piece acts as a constant nudge, making the audience feel morally responsible.”

Climactic Build-up / Shifts in Tone

• Starts calm, builds to anger or urgency.

• 💡 Effect: Guides the reader’s emotional journey and primes them to reflect deeply at the emotional high point.

• ✏ Example: “The text’s gradual shift from detached commentary to passionate plea mirrors the reader’s own growing emotional investment.”

Writing for an audience technique: Word choice/diction

• using a word because of its denotation (literal meaning) and the connotations (feelings, images, ideas) it evokes

• By employing emotionally charged diction, the writer effectively appeals to the audience’s pathos, reinforcing the urgency of the message.

• selecting most apt word is key to clear and accurate communication of ideas, feelings and images - creating tone

• Might be used in a speech to evoke pathos in the audience

• Explain word choice by briefly clarifying the words denotation and connotations (any ideas or feelings associated with this word)

E.g.

• “The choice of the word ‘brutal’ conveys a sense of violence and injustice, affecting the reader’s perception of the authorities as ruthless.”

• “The stark word choice of ‘crackdown’ implies an aggressive action, potentially framing the event in a negative light.”

• “By selecting such harsh language, the writer intensifies the emotional gravity of the situation, encouraging the reader to adopt a critical view of the actions described.”

Writing for an audience technique: Imagery

• using simile, personification, metaphor to bring description to life by creating a vivid image in the reader’s mind

• Imagery enhances communication by conjuring up relatable images and comparisons - creating tone

• imagery is regularly used in persuasive writing to ‘dress up’ the ‘bare bones’ of the argument - make argument more relatable and more emotive

• analyse impage by explaining first the comparison and second what this literally tells us about the subject of the comparison

Writing for an audience technique: emotive word choice / imagery

• emotive word choice and imagery are those that are specifically aimed at conveying the writer’s feelings (emotion = emotions) and evoking corresponding feelings in the reader

• this is key in evoking pathos in audience or reader

• this is key technique to use in speech writing in order to evoke pathos in the audience

Writing for an audience technique: alliteration / sibilance

• Alliteration is when several words which start with the same sound are grouped together

• alliteration in this context can be key in creating emphasis and or a catchy, memorable effect/echoing the sound being described/mirroring a movement - creating tone

• alliteration often features in the title of articles; the natural rhythm and pattern it creates make the alliterated words stand out and catch our attention.

what translation is dolls hosue

Methuen

Different ways to structure a P1 essay

2 obvious ones - e.g. how and to what effect is social media portrayed as a force in…

1. one main paragraph with little ones on how it is

2. another main paragraph with little ones on how it isnt

Each paragraph explores how the text achieves a specific effect:

1. Engaging the reader’s attention (e.g., strong hook, tone, diction)

2. Building credibility or logic (ethos/logos, use of stats or expert voices)

3. Evoking emotion (pathos, anecdotes, emotive language)

4. Shaping the audience’s thinking (structure, repetition, rhetorical questions)

5. Conveying a tone or mood (irony, satire, reflection, urgency)

Pirates - e.g. how is structure used to persuade, or to call to action,… - 2 main paragraphs

1. Persuade

2. Inform

3. Reflect - on own actions / self as a person - pathos

4. Appeal - to ethos/logos - building credibility/logic

5. Trust

6. Educate

7. Stir - call to action

MANAGING TIME

• 12 mins analysing + plan

• 5 mins intro

• 12 mins first bit of one main body

• 12 mins second bit of one main body

• 12 mins first bit of second main body

• 12 mins second bit of second main body

• 6 mins conclusion

4 mins REREAD

Emotive language

• Effect: Appeals directly to the emotions of the reader, creating empathy or stirring feelings of anger or sorrow.

• Example: “Torn from their families without warning...”

• How to discuss:

  • “The emotive phrase ‘torn from their families’ highlights the violent disruption of personal lives, triggering sympathy for those affected.”

  • “The use of ‘without warning’ intensifies the sense of injustice, making the reader feel the abruptness and cruelty of the action.”

  • “By using language that evokes a visceral emotional response, the writer encourages the reader to feel morally outraged at the described event.”

Symbolism

• Effect: Adds deeper layers of meaning, connecting abstract ideas with tangible objects, often enhancing the emotional impact.

• Example: “The broken chain lay rusted in the dirt.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The broken chain symbolizes lost freedom, reinforcing the theme of oppression and the characters’ inability to escape their circumstances.”

  • “The rusted chain serves as a visual metaphor for the decay of hope and the diminishing possibilities for liberation.”

  • “By using the chain as a symbol of entrapment, the writer underscores the psychological and physical constraints faced by the individuals involved.”

Contrast

• Effect: Emphasizes differences between elements, deepening the reader's understanding of an issue or character.

• Example: “They celebrated while we mourned.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The contrast between celebration and mourning sharpens the emotional divide between the groups, highlighting their conflicting experiences.”

  • “The juxtaposition of these opposing actions underscores the disparity in emotional responses, emphasizing the inequality between the two parties.”

  • “By placing these contrasting emotions side by side, the writer forces the reader to acknowledge the stark differences in human experience.”

Modality

• Effect: Indicates the degree of certainty or obligation, influencing the tone and persuasive power of the text.

• Example: “This must change.” vs. “This might change.”

• How to discuss:

  • “High modality such as ‘must change’ conveys a sense of urgency and moral imperative, making the statement more forceful and persuasive.”

  • “The use of low modality in ‘might change’ introduces doubt and caution, reflecting a more tentative approach to the issue.”

  • “By adjusting modality, the writer manipulates the tone, either strengthening or softening the impact of the argument.”

Syntax (sentence structure)

• Effect: Influences pacing, tone, and emphasis, shaping the flow and impact of the argument.

• Example: “We waited. Then we watched. Then we wept.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The short, choppy sentences mirror the sense of helplessness and inevitability, building a rhythmic momentum that draws the reader into the emotional climax.”

  • “The sentence structure mirrors the progression of events, conveying the passage from passive observation to active grief, heightening the emotional impact.”

  • “The deliberate use of simple, declarative sentences creates an intense focus on each moment, making each one more powerful and emotionally charged.”

Irony/sarcasm

• Effect: Highlights contradictions and often exposes absurdities or flaws in a situation, inviting the reader to question the status quo.

• Example: “Oh, brilliant — another solution that solves nothing.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The sarcastic tone undercuts the proposed solution, emphasizing the speaker’s disbelief and frustration with its ineffectiveness.”

  • “By using irony, the writer subtly critiques the situation, making the reader aware of its inherent contradictions.”

  • “Sarcasm serves as a vehicle for criticism, encouraging the reader to view the subject with skepticism and question its validity.”

Oxymoron/paradox

• Effect: Introduces complexity or provokes deeper reflection by presenting seemingly contradictory ideas.

• Example: “Bitter sweetness of freedom.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The oxymoron ‘bitter sweetness’ reflects the complex reality of freedom, suggesting that liberation often comes with both joy and sacrifice.”

  • “By juxtaposing two opposing ideas, the writer invites the reader to reflect on the nuanced nature of freedom and its costs.”

  • “The paradox serves to highlight the internal conflict that accompanies moments of liberation, deepening the emotional and thematic impact of the text.”

Euphemism

Euphemism: is a figure of speech that replaces a harsh or blunt term with a more mild or indirect expression.

• Effect: Softens harsh realities or unpleasant truths, often concealing the full impact of a situation.

• Example: “Collateral damage” instead of “civilian deaths”

• How to discuss:

  • “The euphemism ‘collateral damage’ reduces the severity of the event, downplaying the human cost of conflict.”

  • “By using a euphemism, the writer masks the true nature of the violence, affecting how the reader perceives the consequences.”

  • “The use of euphemistic language serves to mitigate the emotional impact of the event, perhaps making it more palatable for the audience.”

Cliché

• Effect: Simplifies ideas for easy understanding but may risk being seen as predictable or unoriginal.

• Example: “Every cloud has a silver lining.”

• How to discuss:

  • “The use of the cliché simplifies the message, making it easily accessible but possibly reducing its emotional depth.”

  • “By employing a familiar phrase, the writer ensures the audience understands the optimistic sentiment, though it may lack originality.”

  • “The reliance on a cliché allows the reader to immediately grasp the intended message but may feel overly simplistic or trite.”

Cyclical Structure

• Structure that starts and ends with the same idea or image, creating a sense of symmetry.

• Often used in reflective writing or persuasive essays to create closure.

• Example: "Starting with a personal story and ending by revisiting the same experience gives the essay a cohesive feel."