International Relations

Realism

A way of thinking about international politics that focuses on power, national interest, and the idea that conflict is natural between countries.

Anarchy

The idea that there's no world government, so countries must take care of themselves.

International "self-help" system

Since there's no higher authority, each country must protect itself and can't fully trust others to help.

Hobbes' security paradox

When one country tries to become safer, others feel threatened and respond, which can actually make everyone less safe.

The Peloponnesian Wars (and our friend Thucydides)

An ancient Greek war that showed how fear, power, and self-interest lead to conflict—important to realist thinking.

Bipolar worlds

A world with two main superpowers (like the U.S. and USSR during the Cold War), often leading to tension but also balance.

Sovereignty

The right of a country to control its own land and make its own laws without interference.

Thirty Years War

A long and bloody war in Europe that helped lead to modern ideas about independent nations.

Defenestration of Prague

When angry nobles threw officials out of a window in 1618, starting the Thirty Years War.

The Peace of Exhaustion

The idea that some wars end not with a clear winner, but when everyone is too tired to keep fighting.

The Peace of Westphalia (and the Westphalian System)

A 1648 treaty that ended the Thirty Years War and shaped today's system of independent, equal countries.

Assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand (Take me out!)

The killing that triggered World War I—shows how one event can set off a global conflict.

The Blank Check

Germany promised full support to Austria-Hungary after the assassination, making a bigger war more likely.

The Triple Alliance and the Triple Entente

Two groups of countries before WWI: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy vs. Britain, France, and Russia.

Balance of Power

The idea that peace comes when no country is too strong—countries team up to stop one from taking over.

Collective Security

When countries agree to protect each other and stop threats together—used in groups like the UN.

Appeasement

Trying to avoid war by giving in to a powerful country's demands—like Britain did with Hitler before WWII.

Hitler as a Poker Player

A way of seeing Hitler as someone who took bold risks in foreign policy to see how far he could go.

Hitler as a German Nationalist

A view that Hitler acted mainly to make Germany strong and proud again, based on national goals.

Traditionalism, Revisionism and Post-Revisionism

Three ways to explain history: Traditionalism blames the USSR, Revisionism blames the U.S., Post-Revisionism says both sides misunderstood each other.

Counterfactuals and IR theory

Asking 'what if' questions about history to better understand how international politics work.

How did the Cold War End

Scholars say it ended due to Soviet economic problems, strong U.S. pressure, and leaders who were ready for change.

How do weaker states confront a powerful state (Walt's strategies)

Weaker countries can either balance (join others to resist) or bandwagon (join the stronger side) to stay safe.

What does Realism propose to maintain peace?

Peace comes from countries being strong, watching each other, and keeping power balanced so no one dominates.

United Nations (UN)

An international organization founded in 1945 to promote peace, security, cooperation, and human rights around the world.

Article 2

Part of the UN Charter that outlines the basic principles of the UN, including sovereign equality and peaceful dispute resolution.

Article 2(4)

Says countries should not use force against other countries unless it's in self-defense or approved by the UN.

Chapter VI

Deals with peaceful solutions to conflicts—like negotiation, mediation, or sending observers.

Chapter VII

Allows the UN to take stronger actions (like sanctions or military force) to maintain or restore peace.

Security Council

The main UN body for peace and security, with 15 members: 5 permanent and 10 elected.

P-5 (Permanent Members)

The five permanent members of the Security Council—U.S., U.K., France, Russia, and China—each with veto power.

E-10 (Elected Members)

Ten non-permanent members of the Security Council elected for two-year terms by the General Assembly.

Veto Power

The ability of any P-5 member to block any substantive resolution in the Security Council.

General Assembly

The main meeting of all UN member states—each has one vote, and it discusses global issues.

One Nation, One Vote

In the General Assembly, each country, big or small, gets one equal vote.

Regional Caucus Blocs

Groups of countries based on region (like Africa, Asia-Pacific) that coordinate positions and vote together.

Six Main Committees

Specialized committees in the General Assembly that focus on key global issues like peace, human rights, and law.

Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)

UN body that coordinates international economic, social, and development efforts.

Trusteeship Council

Originally managed colonies and territories moving toward independence; now inactive.

Secretariat

The UN's administrative body that carries out daily work, led by the Secretary-General.

Secretary-General

The top UN official who represents the UN and oversees its work—often a global spokesperson for peace.

International Court of Justice (ICJ)

The UN's main court that settles legal disputes between countries and gives legal opinions.

Optional Clause

Part of the ICJ's system that lets countries choose whether or not to accept its rulings.

Peace Enforcement

Using military force (with UN approval) to stop fighting and restore peace—stronger than peacekeeping.

Brahimi Report

A major 2000 UN review that called for stronger, better-funded peace operations with clear goals and support.

Epistemic Communities

Networks of experts who share knowledge and help shape international policy and decisions.

Four Policemen

FDR's early vision of global peacekeepers: U.S., U.K., USSR, and China maintaining order after WWII.

Three Musketeers Model

Idea that the U.S., U.K., and France work closely together on the Security Council like loyal allies.

Concert of Europe

A 19th-century system where great powers worked together to prevent war and keep a balance of power.

League of Nations

The failed predecessor of the UN, created after WWI to keep peace but lacked strong enforcement.

SWAPO

South West Africa People's Organization—fought for Namibian independence from South African control.

UNTAG (Namibia)

UN mission that helped Namibia transition to independence and hold fair elections in 1989-1990.

UNTAC (Cambodia)

UN operation in Cambodia that helped end conflict, disarm groups, and organize elections in the 1990s.

Operation Provide Comfort

A UN-backed humanitarian and military mission to protect Kurdish refugees in Iraq after the Gulf War.

Resolution 660 (Iraq)

UN resolution condemning Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990 and demanding immediate withdrawal.

Resolution 435 (Namibia)

A 1978 UN plan for Namibia's independence, which led to the creation of UNTAG.

Resolution 2736 (Sudan)

A more recent UN resolution focused on Sudan, addressing peace and humanitarian issues (check for exact updates if needed).

Cyprusization

A term for a situation where a frozen conflict becomes long-term, like the divided island of Cyprus.

Tiananmen Square (China & the UN)

The UN's limited response to China's 1989 crackdown on protesters—shows how powerful states can avoid UN punishment.

Decolonization

The global process of colonies becoming independent, often supported by the UN after WWII.

Mandate System

A League of Nations system where colonial powers "supervised" former colonies until they could govern themselves.

Geostrategic Convergence

When major powers' strategic interests align in a region, cooperation becomes more likely.

Sudan Civil War (1983-2004)

A long conflict between the Sudanese government in the north and rebels in the south, mainly over religion, oil, and ethnic differences.

John Garang

Leader of the Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA) and a key figure in South Sudan's push for autonomy; later became vice president of Sudan.

Sudan People's Liberation Army (SPLA)

The rebel group that fought the Sudanese government during the civil war, aiming for southern independence.

Sharia Law (1983)

Islamic law introduced by the Sudanese government, which worsened tensions with the mostly non-Muslim south.

National Islamic Front

An Islamist political group that took control of Sudan's government in 1989 and pushed strict Islamic policies.

Lost Boys of Sudan

Tens of thousands of boys who were displaced or orphaned during the civil war and walked for months to escape violence.

Darfur Conflict

A brutal war in western Sudan starting in 2003, where government-backed militias attacked civilians, causing mass killings and displacement.

Justice and Equality Movement (JEM)

A rebel group in Darfur that fought the Sudanese government, claiming marginalization of the region.

Janjaweed

Arab militias backed by the Sudanese government, known for attacking villages and committing atrocities in Darfur.

Colin Powell (Darfur = genocide)

As U.S. Secretary of State, he declared in 2004 that the Darfur conflict was genocide—drawing global attention.

International Criminal Court (ICC)

An international court that investigates and prosecutes crimes like genocide, war crimes, and crimes against humanity.

Omar al-Bashir

Sudan's president from 1989 to 2019; charged with genocide and war crimes by the ICC for his role in Darfur.

Genocide charges (2009 ICC indictment)

The ICC formally charged Omar al-Bashir with genocide and other crimes related to the Darfur conflict.

2019 Sudan Uprising

Mass protests led to the fall of al-Bashir, ending decades of dictatorship and sparking a fragile transition.

2021 Sudan Coup

The military took back full control, ending the power-sharing deal with civilians and stalling democratic reforms.

Rapid Support Forces (RSF)

A powerful paramilitary group linked to former Janjaweed militias; now rivals with the army for control of Sudan.

Mohamed Hamdan Dagalo ("Hemedti")

Commander of the RSF and a major figure in Sudan's ongoing power struggle.

Gen Abdel Fattah al-Burhan

Head of Sudan's military and current de facto leader; rival of Hemedti in the 2023-2024 conflict.

External Actors: UAE, Iran, Egypt, Russia (Wagner Group)

Countries involved in Sudan for influence, resources, or military support—some back different sides in the conflict.

Humanitarian Crisis in Sudan

Millions face hunger, displacement, and violence due to ongoing fighting and lack of aid access.

Food Insecurity (Phase 4 "emergency", Phase 5 "catastrophic")

International food crisis scale—Sudan is at Phase 4 and parts may reach Phase 5, which is near famine levels.

South Sudan Civil War (2013-2023)

A brutal internal conflict mainly between President Kiir and VP Machar, causing thousands of deaths and displacements.

Salva Kiir

South Sudan's president; from the Dinka ethnic group and a key player in both independence and the civil war.

Riek Machar

Former rebel leader and VP; from the Nuer ethnic group and longtime rival of Salva Kiir.

Dinka vs Nuer

Two major ethnic groups in South Sudan whose rivalry fueled political tensions and civil war.

UNMISS (UN Mission in South Sudan)

A UN peacekeeping mission aimed at protecting civilians and supporting peace after South Sudan's independence.

African Union (AU) Peacekeeping

The AU has deployed forces in both Sudan and South Sudan to monitor peace and protect civilians.

Power-sharing Agreement (2018, extended to Dec 2024)

A deal between Kiir and Machar to share power and end the civil war—still fragile and delayed in implementation.

Conflict Along the Sudan-South Sudan Border

Ongoing tensions over borders, oil, and ethnic clashes—especially in disputed areas.

Panthou / Heglig (Oil-rich disputed area)

A contested area rich in oil, claimed by both Sudan and South Sudan, sparking clashes.

Pastoralist Communities

Nomadic herders who often cross borders; sometimes caught in or contribute to ethnic and resource conflicts.

Border Closure & Trade Disruption

When Sudan and South Sudan close borders due to conflict, it causes economic hardship and shortages.

Desertification Zone

An area where land is turning into desert due to climate change and overuse, leading to more competition for resources.

Abdalla Hamdok

A civilian leader who briefly led Sudan's transition after al-Bashir; resigned after the 2021 coup.

Sudan Peace Agreement

A set of deals signed in 2020 between the government and rebel groups to end long-standing conflicts—implementation is slow.

UNISFA (UN Interim Security Force for Abyei)

A UN force deployed to prevent conflict in the disputed border region of Abyei between Sudan and South Sudan.

UN Peacekeeping Mandates

The legal basis and specific goals that guide UN peace missions, such as civilian protection or conflict monitoring.

Arms Embargo

A ban on selling or sending weapons to certain countries or groups to reduce violence.