Types of Liberalism: Later Classical

When do later classical ideas come from?

Early-mid C19th

How had societies (e.g. UK, USA) changed by the 1800s?

• More industrialised

• More individuals living and working in urban environments

• Growing sense of class consciousness

• Increased interest in democracy and socialism

What was the impact of this changing society on liberalism?

Classical liberalism struggled to remain relevant

Who are the key ‘late classical’ liberals?

• Jeremy Bentham (1748 - 1832)

• Samuel Smiles (1812 - 1904)

• Herbert Spencer (1820 - 1903)

• John Stuart Mill (1806 - 73)

What was Jeremy Bentham’s key philosophy?

Utilitarianism

What is utilitarianism?

• Individuals seek to maximise their own ‘utility’

• Maximise personal pleasure

  • Minimise personal pain

What did Bentham argue about the liberal state?

• Should be proactive in responding to clashes between individuals in an industrialised society

• Should use ‘the greatest happiness of the greatest number’ principle to shape legislation and policy

How does Bentham argue that this ‘greatest happiness’ principle would be implemented?

Government would be more likely to follow if they are elected by and accountable to the ‘greatest number’ of voters

What did Samuel Smiles fear?

That socialism and its calls for greater state provision would threaten individualism

What did Samuel Smiles argue about self-reliance?

• Accepted that it was made harder by industrial society

• Still feasible, even for new working class

• New obstacles would challenge individuals more rigorously, leading to fuller development

What did Samuel Smiles warn about?

If self-help were usurped by state help:

• People would remain stunted

• Liberty would be squandered

How are Herbert Spencer and Samuel Smiles similar?

Both emphasis self-help and oppose state intervention

What did Herbert Spencer challenge?

Smiles’ optimism

→ Questioned whether all individuals could truly suceed through self-help

What kind of people did Spencer say existed in Victorian society?

‘the feble, the feckless and the failing’

What did Spencer fear about state support for the weak?

It would lead to greater state power and a loss of freedom for the majority

What principle did Spencer apply to society?

Social Darwinism

What is social darwinism?

• Advocated a minimal state and negative freedom

• Claimed this would result in the ‘survival of the fittest’ and the eventual elimination of those unable to thrive in society

What type of society did Spencer envision?

One where rational self-reliance and individual freedom would become the norm

What did John Stuart Mill focus on?

Developmental individualism

→ People must be nurtured to become their best selves

What did Mill think was key to liberal progress?

Formal education

How did Mill update Locke’s representative government?

• Model of representative democracy

• Citizens would elect liberally-minded representatives who would:

  • Not just blindly follow the majority

  • Aggregate diverse opinions to reach broad consent

• Rejected direct democracy

Why did Mill reject direct democracy?

Argued it was more vulnerable to mob rule or the tyranny of the majority

What did Mill believe about universal education?

• Concerned that most voters were ill-equipped to make rational political choices

• Must precede universal suffrage

Why must universal education precede universal suffrage?

• Would develop people’s rationality

• Promote a liberal consensus

What did Mill propose about suffrage?

• Illiterate should not be allowed to vote

• Educated should receive extra votes

How did Mill refine utilitarianism?

• Argued that democracy could enhance liberal values once education was widespread

• Citizens and politicians could then calculate ‘the greatest happiness’ by considering the interests of all

What liberal values did Mill argue could be enhanced by democracy?

• Political education

• Informed debate

• Social progress

What limited Mill’s arguments?

• Vague on how universal education should be provided

• Hesitated to support state provision as a classical liberal