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thinking
the process of mentally representing and manipulating information, including reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making
metacognition
thinking about one's own thinking; awareness and regulation of cognitive processes (e.g., self-monitoring learning strategies)
prototypes
the best or most typical example of a category (e.g., a robin is a prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not
creativity
the ability to generate new and valuable ideas. It includes divergent thinking, which explores many possible solutions (unlike convergent thinking, which seeks one correct answer)e
executive functions
cognitive processes that control behavior, such as planning, decision-making, working memory, and impulse control
algorithm
a step-by-step, logical procedure that guarantees a correct solution (e.g., a math formula)
heuristics
a mental shortcut or rule of thumb used for problem-solving; faster than algorithms but more error-prone
mental set
the tendency to approach problems using a mindset that worked in the past, even when it may not be effective in a new situation
functional fixedness
the inability to see a new use for an object beyond its typical function (e.g., not realizing a paperclip can be used to unlock a door)
representativeness heuristic
judging the likelihood of something based on how similar it is to a prototype, leading to errors (e.g., assuming someone who wears glasses and reads a lot is more likely to be a professor than a truck driver, despite statistical probabilities)
availability heuristic
estimating the likelihood of events based on how easily they come to mind (e.g., fearing plane crashes more than car accidents because plane crashes are more publicized
gambler’s fallacy
the mistaken belief that past random events affect future random events (e.g., thinking that after flipping five heads in a row, a tails is “due” to happen)
framing effect
the way an issue is presented affects decision-making (e.g., people are more likely to choose surgery if told it has a 90% survival rate rather than a 10% death rate
priming
the activation of certain associations in memory, often unconsciously, which influences perception and behavior (e.g., seeing the word “yellow” makes you recognize “banana” faster)
sunk-cost fallacy
the tendency to continue an endeavor due to previously invested resources (e.g., staying in a bad relationship because of time already spent in it)
