BioPsych Exam 1

Behavioral Neuroscience

The study of the biological bases of psychological processes and behavior

Dualism

The notion, promoted by René Descartes, that the mind has an immaterial aspect that is distinct from the material body and brain

Localization of Function

The concept that different brain regions specialize in specific behaviors.

Phrenology

The belief that bumps on the skull reflect enlargements of brain regions responsible for certain behavioral faculties.

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the nervous system (brain) to change and adapt in response to experience, learning, etc

Amygdala

a small, almond-shaped part of the brain primarily responsible for processing emotions, particularly fear, anxiety, and aggression, and plays a key role in identifying potential threats and triggering the "fight or flight" response by attaching emotional significance to memories

Autonomic NS

a component of the peripheral nervous system that regulates involuntary physiologic processes including heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, and sexual arousal

Somatic NS

a component of the peripheral nervous system associated with the voluntary control of body movements via skeletal muscles

Basal Ganglia

a group of nuclei in the brain that are involved in movement regulation (esp habitual), cognition, and emotions

Blood-brain barrier

a semipermeable membrane that regulates the movement of substances between the blood and the brain

Cerebellum

a part of the brain that plays a role in motor coordination, balance, and some cognitive and emotional processes. It's located at the back of the head, above the brainstem

Cerebrospinal fluid

a clear, colorless fluid that protects the brain and spinal cord

Neurons

the basic functional unit of the nervous system, a specialized cell that receives, processes, and transmits electrical signals throughout the body

Glial Cells (Astrocytes)

star-shaped glial cells in the brain that support the central nervous system (CNS)

Glial Cells (oligodendrocytes)

glial cells in the central nervous system (CNS) that create the myelin sheath around axons

Glial Cells (Schwann cells)

a type of glial cell found in the peripheral nervous system (PNS) that primarily functions to form the myelin sheath around axons, essentially insulating nerve fibers and facilitating rapid signal transmission along the axon by creating "nodes of Ranvier" between the myelin segments

Glial Cells (microglia)

cells in the brain that are part of the immune system and help maintain brain health

Golgi Stains

Uses a silver compound to stain the entire cell membrane black, and provides detailed information about the morphology of the individual neuron

Nissl Stains

stains nucleic acids like RNA and DNA, causing cell bodies to stain blue or purple, and provides information about the density of neurons in specific brain structures

Dendrites

the branching, tree-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons, essentially acting as the primary input point for a nerve cell, where it collects information before transmitting it to the cell body (soma) to be processed further; essentially, dendrites are the "receiving" part of a neuron

Cell body

the main part of a neuron, which contains the nucleus and is responsible for controlling the cell's functions; it is where information received from dendrites is processed and then sent out via the axon to other neurons

Axon

the long, thin fiber extending from a neuron's cell body that carries electrical impulses away from the cell body to transmit signals to other neurons or muscle cells, essentially acting as the "sending" part of the neuron responsible for communication between nerve cells

Axon hillock

the region of a neuron that controls the initiation of an electrical impulse based on the inputs from other neurons or the environment

Axon terminal

the end of an axon that releases neurotransmitters to communicate with other cells

Synapse

The junction between the axon of one neuron and the dendrite of another, through which the two neurons communicate

Synaptic vessicles

the portion of the axon terminal where neurotransmitters are stored before being released across nerve synapses

Sensory Neurons

nerve cells that transmit information from the body's sensory organs to the brain. They are responsible for enabling people to see, hear, smell, taste, and feel touch, pressure, and temperature

Motor Neurons

a type of nerve cell that transmits signals from the brain or spinal cord to muscles, directly controlling voluntary movements like walking, talking, and swallowing, essentially allowing the body to take action based on information received from the central nervous system; they are considered the "effector" neurons responsible for muscle contraction

Interneurons

neurons that connect sensory and motor neurons in the central nervous system (CNS)

Multipolar neurons

nerve cells that play a key role in higher cognitive functions, such as memory, learning, and decision making, a type of neuron that possesses a single axon and many dendrites (and dendritic branches)

Bipolar neurons

a kind of nerve cell with one dendrite and one axon, which are attached to opposite ends of the cell body, they transmit information about sight, smell, and hearing

Unipolar neurons

A unipolar neuron only has one nerve process extending from the cell body: an axon that extends into dendrites, unipolar neurons only occur in invertebrates, such as flies, and are not present in humans

Presynaptic neurons

the neuron that sends signals to the postsynaptic neuron across the synapse

Postsynaptic neurons

a neuron that receives signals from a presynaptic neuron through a junction called a synapse

Neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that carry signals between nerve cells and other cells in the body

Receptors

a cell in a sensory system that detects and responds to stimuli from the environment

Myelin

a fatty substance that insulates nerve fibers, which helps neurons communicate and respond to signals involved in memory and other cognitive functions

CNS

the part of the body that processes information and controls most of the body's functions, made up of the brain and spinal cord

PNS

the network of nerves that extends outside the brain and spinal cord, responsible for carrying sensory information from the body to the central nervous system and motor commands from the central nervous system to muscles and organs, includes the somatic nervous system (voluntary movements) and autonomic nervous system (involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion)

Sympathetic NS

the part of the autonomic nervous system responsible for the "fight-or-flight" response, activating bodily functions that prepare the body to react to stressful or dangerous situations

Parasympathetic NS

the division of the autonomic nervous system primarily responsible for the body's "rest and digest" functions, promoting relaxation and conserving energy by slowing the heart rate, increasing digestion, and stimulating activities like salivation and urination when the body is in a calm state

Cerebral cortex

the outermost layer of the brain that is responsible for many higher brain functions, including memory, thought, and language. It's also known as gray matter

Gyri(us)

the ridges on the surface of the brain, and they are part of the system that creates a larger surface area for the brain

Sulci(us)

grooves in the brain's cerebral cortex that separate functional areas

Frontal Lobe

the part of the brain that controls many aspects of behavior, thought, and emotion. It's located at the front of the brain, behind the forehead

Parietal Lobe

the part of the brain that processes sensory information, including touch, temperature, pain, and pressure

Temporal Lobe

a part of the brain that helps people process sounds, understand language, and create memories

Occipital Lobe

the part of the brain that processes visual information and is responsible for visual perception

Corpus Callosum

a bundle of nerve fibers that connects the left and right hemispheres of the brain, allowing them to communicate

Dorsal/Ventral

Dorsal means toward the back of the body, while ventral means toward the front

Rostral/Caudal

Rostral means toward the nose, while caudal means toward the tail

White Matter

a collection of nerve fibers in the brain that helps the brain learn and function, provide communication between different grey matter areas and between grey matter and the rest of your body includes corpus callosum, white bc of myelin

Gray Matter

the place where the processing of sensation, perception, voluntary movement, learning, speech, and cognition takes place

Forebrain

the part of the brain that controls thinking, reasoning, and sensory processing. It's also responsible for voluntary actions, such as eating, sleeping, and reproduction

Midbrain

a part of the central nervous system that plays a key role in visual and auditory reflexes, defensive and reproductive behaviors, neurotransmitter source

Hindbrain

the part of the brain that controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate, and is involved in psychological arousal

Hippocampus

a brain structure that plays a key role in learning, memory, and emotion

Thalamus

a small structure in the brain that acts as a relay station for sensory information

Hypothalamus

a small region of the brain located in the diencephalon, primarily responsible for maintaining bodily homeostasis by regulating vital functions like body temperature, hunger, thirst, sleep-wake cycles, and sexual behavior (4 fs)

Substantia Nigra

a small brain structure that plays a key role in regulating motor, emotional, and cognitive behaviors (LOTS of dopamine)

Parkinson’s Disease

a neurodegenerative disorder that can affect mood and movement

Pons

between midbrain and medulla, it handles unconscious processes and jobs, such as your sleep-wake cycle and breathing, relays signals between cerebrum and cerebellum

Medulla

refers to the medulla oblongata, which is the lowermost part of the brainstem responsible for controlling vital involuntary functions like breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Meninges

the three layers of tissue that protect the brain and spinal cord

Dura Matter

The outermost layer, made of dense connective tissue that adheres to the skull and vertebrae

Arachnoid Matter

A thin webby membrane located between the dura mater and the pia mater

Pia Matter

A very thin, clear membrane that adheres to the surface of the brain and spinal cord

Ventricles

fluid filled chambers inside the brain

Lateral Ventricle

c-shaped lateral portion in each hemisphere that produce and regulate CSF

Third Ventricle

midline ventricle that that moves CSF from lateral to fourth ventricle

Fourth Ventricle

cavity in the pons that gets CSF and releases it to brain and spinal cord

Somatic Intervention

a body-based psychological technique that helps people identify and interrupt negative patterns, like anxiety, fear, or stress

Behavioral Intervention

a planned set of strategies and techniques designed to modify or change specific behaviors in an individual, often by utilizing principles of reinforcement and behavioral learning theory, to address problematic behaviors and promote positive changes in their actions and lifestyle

Independent variable

a characteristic that researchers manipulate in an experiment to see how it affects a dependent variable

Dependent Variables

the variable that is measured and is expected to change as a result of manipulating the independent variable in an experiment

Correlation

the statistical relationship between two or more variables, indicating whether and how much they change together, but does not necessarily imply a cause-and-effect relationship between them

Causality

the relationship between two events where one event causes the other

CT scans

a radiographic technique that produces detailed images of the brain and other soft tissues by using x-rays that move around the head and detectors located on the other side of the head to measure the levels of radiation absorbed to determine tissue density (tumors, cortical shrink, etc)

MRI

a noninvasive diagnostic technique that produces images of the brain and other body tissues, measures hydrogen nuclei by using radio waves that line up protons then knock them over so they return to their original positions and emit radio waves and detectors measure density

fMRI

a neuroimaging technique that allows researchers to observe which areas of the brain are active during specific mental processes by measuring changes in oxygenated blood flow associated with neural activity using rapidly oscilating fields (very poor temporal resolution)

PET Scan

Used to evaluate cerebral metabolism and blood flow as well as the binding and transport of neurotransmitter systems in the brain by injecting radioactive chemicals into the bloodstream, enables documentation of functional changes that occur during the performance of mental activities (very poor temporal resolution)

MEG

a non-invasive brain imaging technique that measures brain activity to study psychological processes, measuring the magnetic fields generated by electrical currents in the brain (very poor spatial resolution)

TMS

a procedure that uses magnetic fields to stimulate nerve cells in the brain and activate/mute regions to map the brain and improve symptoms of major depression

Cation

positively charged ions that move across neuronal membranes during depolarization

Anion

a negatively charged ion that contributes to the movement of signals across neuronal membranes during depolarization

Resting Potential

the electrical charge of a neuron's membrane when it's not sending signals (-65 mV)

Ion Channel

proteins that allow specific ions to pass through cell membranes

Potassium Ions (K⁺)

electrolytes that play a key role in the electrical properties of neurons and the brain. They are involved in the transmission of signals in neurons (start as abundant inside the cell)

Sodium Ions: (Na⁺)

electrically charged particles that play a key role in neural signaling and the transmission of action potentials in neurons (start outside the cell and flood in after threshold is reached)

Diffusion

the process by which particles move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration

Electrostatic Pressure

the force exerted on ions due to their electrical charge, causing oppositely charged ions to attract each other and similarly charged ions to repel

Sodium-Potassium Pumps

a protein in cell membranes that helps establish the resting membrane potential of cells, particularly neurons (3 Na⁺ out for every 2 K⁺ in)

Equilibrium Potential

balance of electrical charge and concentration gradient for a cell

Hyperpolarization

neuron's membrane potential becomes more negative than resting potential (inhibitory)

Depolarization

neuron's cell membrane potential becomes less negative, meaning the inside of the cell becomes more positive relative to the outside (excitatory)

Threshold

the minimum amount of stimulation required to trigger a response in a cell (-40 mV)

Action Potential Steps

1. Resting Potential

2. Depolarization (threshold hit)

3. Repolarization

4. Hyperpolarization

5. Resting

Resting potential

neuron is at a stable, negative charge due to an the inside of the cell having negatively charged proteins, with more sodium ions outside the cell and more potassium ions inside

Depolarization

When an EPSP is received, voltage-gated sodium channels open and sodium rushes into the cell making the cell more positive than its surroundings if it reaches the threshold an action potential is triggered and depolarization continues until peak potential (40 mV)

Repolarizaiton

Sodium channels close, the potassium channels open and let it back into the cell bringing the cell back towards resting potential