Origins of the Cold War and Cold War Crisis

Occupation Zones of Germany/Partition of Berlin

1. Context (what led to it)

   • WWII.

   • An agreement made at The Yalta.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • A decision between the Allied Powers to divide Germany into 4 distinct zones, each ally administering one zone.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • Eventually became France, Great Britain and the US occupying West Germany while the Soviet Union managed East Germany/East Berlin.

Long Telegram

1. Context (what led to it)

   • The US State Department wanted to know why Russia was against the creation of the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • George Kennan, an American diplomat in Moscow sent a 8,000-word telegram to Truman’s State Department.

   • Significant American document.

   • Kennan said that the “problem of how to cope with [the Soviet] force in [is] undoubtedly the greatest task our diplomacy has ever faced and probably greatest it will ever have to face.

   • Said that, the Soviet Union did not want long-term peaceful coexistence with the capitalist states.

   • Analyzed Russian policy.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • Led to debate that impacted American policy towards the Soviet Union for the next 25 years.

Forced Reparations of Soviets

1. Context (what led to it)

   • During the Yalta agreement in 1945, Russian prisoners of war liberated from German camps by the US and Britain were sent back to Russia and vice versa.

   • Russian prisoners didn’t want to go back with Stalin.

   • Russian soldiers tried to free country from Communism.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • Reparations on prisoners of war for speaking out against communism/Stalin (some even used German uniforms).

   • Operation Keelhaul happened in North Italy by British and American forces (on European and US soil).

   • Approx. 200 Soviet nationals were among the prisoners of war at Fort Dix (New Jersey) - had been in German uniform when captured - promised that would not be repartitioned to the Soviet Union, which would guarantee death - one of the largest American betrayals.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • Reparations became a source of contention between Soviet and Allies as countries’ relations deteriorated, leading to the Cold War.

German Expulsion (Forced resettlement) by Soviets

1. Context (what led to it)

   • The German minority in the USSR was considered a risk by the government.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • From 1944 to 1948 at least 12 million Germans were expelled from Eastern Europe and resettled.

   • Reaction to the Nazi Germany atrocities.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • The USSR occupied East Germany.

   • Enforced a strict controlled Communist State.

Truman Doctrine/The Marshall Plan

1. Context (what led to it)

   • A response to the UK decision to stop providing aid to Greece and Turkey in their civil wars against communist parties.

   • Part of President Harry S. Truman’s efforts to contain the spread of communism and rebuild Europe after WWII.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • A policy announced by President Harry S Truman where the US pledged to support any nation resisting communist takeover.

   • An economic aid program initiated by the US to help rebuild Western European economies after WWII, aiming to prevent the spread of communism by stabilizing the region.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • Contributed to early Cold War strategy against the USSR.

   • The US further fueled the USSR suspicion and hostility, leading to a global power struggle.

COMECON

1. Context (what led to it)

   • Response to the formation of the Committee of European Economic Cooperation in Western Europe.

   • Response to Marshall Plan.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • COMECON: Council for Mutual Economic Assistance.

   • Established in Jan. 1949 by Stalin to facilitate/coordinate the development of Eastern European country’s economies.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • Stalin took primary control of the council.

   • Dissolved in 1991, at the end of the Cold War.

NATO/Warsaw Pact

1. Context (what led to it)

   • NATO was formed to fight against the spread of Communism.

   • The Warsaw Pact was signed as a response to the formation of NATO.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • NATO: A security alliance of 30 countries from North America and Europe.

   • NATO’s Goal: Protect the Allies’ freedom by using military and political means. Primarily economic.

   • Warsaw Pact: Defense treaty established by the Soviet Union and other alliance states.

   • Warsaw Pact’s Goal: Prevent Europe from being used as a base for enemies. Primarily focused on the military.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • NATO and the Warsaw pact were ideologically opposed.

   • It led to an arms race that lasted throughout the Cold War.

Iran Crisis (1945-46)

1. Context (what led to it)

   • The 1942 treaty said that all foreign troops would go from Iran within six months after the war.

   • In 1944, Great Britain and the US pressed the government for oil and the Soviets demanded oil as well.

   • Soviets remained on Iran’s land.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • Caused by Joseph Stalin refusing to remove Soviet troops from Iranian territory as the 1942 treaty stated.

   • The conflict involved 30,000 Red Army soldiers and 2,000 Iranian casualties.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • Posed new challenges to the US and the Soviet Union.

   • One of the first crises in the Cold War.

   • Set the tone for the Cold War.

Greek Civil War

1. Context (what led to it)

   • Greece’s government had divisions between extreme-Communist and resistance forces.

   • Later led to a conflict between the Communists and the state.

2. Key Specific Details (what it was)

   • Greek communists tried to gain control of Greece.

   • The US and Great Britain fought alongside the Greek state against the communist forces and ultimately won.

3. Significance to the Cold War (why is it important)

   • One of the first conflicts of the Cold War.

   • Communism attempted to take power, but failed.

   • Left Greece in an economic crisis.

   • Marked the end of the spread of Soviet influence in Europe.

Berlin Crisis: Causes

1. The Yalta Conference

   • Germany was divided into 4 zones occupied by the Allied Powers: the US, the Soviet Union, Great Britain, and France.

     • Stalin wanted to divide Germany so it could not threaten USSR peace again.

     • Tensions between the Soviets and the Western powers rose quickly.

   • The capital of Berlin was also divided: USSR controlled Eastern portion, USA occupied Southern districts, Great Britain occupied Central and Western districts, and France controlled Northern districts.

2. Building Tensions

   • Berlin: the divided city highlighted the contrast between the communism and capitalism.

   • Many East Germans (controlled by the USSR) crossed into West Berlin (controlled by Western powers) because they wanted to escape the Communist regime.

   • West Berlin was located deep inside East German territory, which made its protection from Communism a challenge.

   • Tensions escalated due to ideological, political, and military differences.

Beginning of the Berlin Crisis

• November 10, 1958: Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev demanded that the Western powers withdraw and demilitarize from West Berlin within six months so that people could stop emigrating from east to west, and to make it a unified city. Also, accused them of violating the demilitarization clause of the Potsdam Agreement of 1945 by rearming West Germany.

  • Interpreted as an "ultimatum" by the Western Powers.

• U.S. President Dwight Eisenhower refused to give in to demands.

  • Increased tensions and furthered crisis.

The Berlin Crisis

• 1959: Both sides attempted to negotiate a new agreement on Berlin at Camp David in the US.

  • USSR wanted the US out to unify the city.

  • The US believed that US's presence was critical to West Berlin's freedom.

• 1960: American U-2 spy plane shot in USSR territory, increasing tensions.

• 1961: Both sides met in Vienna, and attempted to form a resolution, but no progress was made. Increased tensions.

  • Khrushchev gave another "ultimatum" and the US didn't back down, increasing tensions.

  • Both sides began to prepare for war.

• August 13, 1961: Construction of the Berlin Wall began, preventing movement on both sides.

  • Disapproved by the US.

• October 1961: A tense military standoff occurred at Checkpoint Charlie, a crossing point between East and West Berlin. American and Soviet tanks faced each other for several hours; however, there was no open conflict.

  • One of the tensest moments of the Cold War in Europe.

Berlin Crisis: Consequences and Connections to Cold War

• The Berlin Wall, which lasted until November 9, 1989.

  • Separated families and limited freedom of movement.

• Strict divisions between East and West Berlin.

  • FRG: West Germany (Western Powers)

  • GDR: East Germany (USSR)

• Increased tensions between the US and the USSR.

• West Berlin had a strong economy and government. The US credited capitalism.

• The 'Brain Drain': Many intellectuals from East Germany emigrated to West Berlin.

  • Damaged East Germany's economy and government credibility (communism).

• Berlin became significant in the Cold War because the USSR wanted to make West Berlin a part of the GDR (East Germany), increasing tension between both sides. Fight for influence.

The Suez Crisis of 1956

• Began when Egypt decided to nationalize the Suez Canal, which resulted in growing tensions between Egypt, France, and Britain, since the joint British-French enterprise owned the canal since 1869.

• British, French, and Israeli forces invaded Egypt to regain control of the Suez Canal.

• The Soviet Union wanted to exploit Arab nationalism to gain a foothold in the area. They supported the Egyptians and helped them build the Aswan Dam on the Nile River. US didn't support.

• Nikita Khrushev, the Soviet leader, threatened to rain down nuke missiles if Israeli, British, & French forces refused to withdraw.

• President Eisenhower warned the Soviet Union about reckless talk of nuclear conflict.

• France & Britain left weak after crisis, USSR & US took more powerful role in global affairs.

• Egypt won.

The Suez Crisis of 1956: Effects

• US and USSR emerged as world superpowers.

• Soviet influence grew in the Middle East.

• Gamal Abdel Nasser, the Egyptian leader during the crisis, grew in popularity and Arab nationalism grew.

• Israel didn't gain rights to the canal, but regained access to the Straight of Tiran. 

• Britain and France weakened, seen as "second tier" world powers. 

• Led to President Eisenhower creating the "Eisenhower Doctrine," stating that any Middle Eastern country threatened by communism can ask for American assistance. 

• Crisis challenged the relationships between the US's Cold War allies. 

The Suez Crisis of 1956: Causes and Consequences

Causes:

1. The Suez Canal nationalized by Egyptian leader.

2. Soviets desired to exploit Arab nationalism to gain more control of the Middle East.

3. Soviets threatened to launch nukes if the British/French/Israeli attacks continued.

4. Overall Suez Crisis of 1956.

5. British and French weakened.

Consequences:

1. Israeli, British, and French forces attacking Egypt to gain back control of the canal.

2. Soviets supply aid to Egypt from Czechoslovakia.

3. US warns the USSR that if they utilize nuclear weapons, the situation will worsen. 

4. Weakened British and French forces.

5. USSR and US emerge as world superpowers.

The Suez Crisis of 1956: Connections to Cold War

After the Suez Crisis of 1956, the US president Eisenhower established the "Eisenhower Doctrine" which states that any Middle Eastern country can call for US economic/military aid to prevent the spread of communism, or if they were threatened by communist forces. 

This relates to the previous Cold War concept of "containment", because its goal was to prevent the spread of communism in certain areas and to contain it in the Soviet Union.

Polish October Revolution (Polish Thaw): Causes

• Joseph Stalin died in March 1953.

• Afterwards, the authoritarian communist regime in Poland relaxed some of its policies.

  • Sparked popular desire for more radical reforms.

• Polish leadership was reluctant because they had quite a few conservative Stalinists.

• Polish people wanted better living standards and Polish industrial workers were impatient for better working conditions.

Polish October Revolution (Polish Thaw): Poznań Protest

• In June 1956, Polish industrial workers in Poznań revolted against the regime.

• A strike was organized on June 28 that escalated into violent riots.

  • Local office of the secret police was attacked and an officer was lynched.

• Authorities responded swiftly with force.

  • Around 60 dead and 200 wounded.

• Order restored in a few days but destabilized the Stalinist leadership in Poland.

Polish October Revolution (Polish Thaw): What happened in October?

• On October 17, Władysław Gomułka was elected as first secretary of the Central Committee of the of the Polish United Workers’ Party.

  • This was done without the Soviet Union’s permission.

• Nikita Khrushchev, the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, threatened Poland with military intervention.

• Gomułka diverted the conflict by convincing Khrushchev that Poland would maintain its socialist system and its dependence on the Soviet Union.

• He went on to lead more liberal policy reformations in Poland.

Polish October Revolution (Polish Thaw): Consequences

• Convinced the Polish United Workers’ Party that there should be significant policy changes.

• Led to Polish political leadership change in October.

  • Rise of Władysław Gomułka.

• Symbolized the end of the Stalinist era Poland.

• Brought about greater autonomy for Poland and some liberalization.

• Poland temporarily had a less authoritarian rule.

  • Reduction of political terror.

  • End to forced collectivization.

  • Increased contacts with the West, including freer travel.

  • Polish-Soviet accords on trade and military cooperation.

• Inspired the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.

Polish October Revolution (Polish Thaw): Connections to Cold War

• Fight for “liberty” over Communism.

  • Tug-of-war between Western and Communist ideologies.

  • While the government is Communist, the Polish people seemed to be more pro-West.

• US was trying to help Poland gain independence during this timeframe.

  • Polish government ≠ Polish people mindset.

  • Trying to “free” the people from the government.

• Exposed Soviet soft power weaknesses.

Prague Spring: Causes

• The leader of Czechoslovakia, Antonin Novotny, was unpopular due to his harsh laws limiting freedom of speech of the public.

• The economy was controlled primarily by the USSR.

• People believed the US would back them up in their uprise against the Communist Party.

Prague Spring

• In 1967 Czech students started peaceful protests against Novotny.

• 1968 – Novotny is replaced by Alexander Dubcek, who quickly began making reforms to return Czechoslovakian freedom of speech and removal of USSR control on the economy.

• Although Dubcek was known to be a committed communist, the USSR started to worry that he will break the Warsaw Pact due to his reforms of allowing some political parties to form and elections to take place. 

• The Brezhnev Doctrine: created by the USSR stating that Russia is allowed to help any country losing communism to restore in any means possible, even if it meant a Third World war.

Prague Spring: The Invasion

• On August 20 1968, Russia sent 500,000 troops invade Czechoslovakia in hopes of restoring the Warsaw Pact.

• The Czechs did not fight back, as they did not have any forces to protect them. Instead they used peaceful protest tactics. Many civilians simply stood in front of tanks and offered the USSR soldiers flowers, consequentially getting run over by the tanks.

Prague Spring: Consequences

• The USSR ultimately succeeded in restoring communism in Czechoslovakia. This connects to their overall goal during the Cold War: spreading and maintaining communism in Eastern Europe.   

• Dubcek got arrested and replaced by a communist leader. He reversed Dubcek’s laws and restored and strengthened the Warsaw Pact.

• The Brezhnev Doctrine allowed the USSR to justify many of their future invasions, like the Invasion of Afghanistan in 1979.

• The U.S saw Prague Spring as defending established territory, not attempted expansion of Soviet power, so many actually called for a withdraw of U.S troops from Eastern Europe.

The Hungarian Revolution: Pre-Existing Conditions

• 1945: Soviet troops occupied many countries, including Hungary, during WWII. However, Stalin’s troops did not retreat after Germany’s defeat (much like the Armenian Revolution) and continued to control these regions.

• 1949: Hungary was forced into a treaty with the Soviet Union, granting them political and military control.

• The Hungarian people desired freedom and were anti-communist.

• After Stalin’s death, Imre Nagy became Hungary’s leader, promising liberalizing policies to reform the country and improve living conditions. However, he was removed from power and replaced by Rakosi, who was later replaced by Erno Gero, continuing the Soviet Union’s harsh policies.

• 1956: The Polish uprising inspired Hungarians to demand change in policies.

The Hungarian Revolution: Spark & Key Events

• The Hungarian Revolution followed a speech given by Nikita Khrushchev, a Soviet Leader, where he attacked Joseph Stalin’s rule.

• This speech inspired a new freedom of criticism and debate, leading to a wave of discontentment and frustration to break out in Hungary.

• This led to a spontaneous revolt in October of 1956.

• Hungary had been crippling underneath the power of the Soviet Union.

• Students protested on October 23 in Budapest.

• Imre Nagy (who will be replaced as a method of containment) appointed after rebels won the first phase of the revolution.

• November 4: Soviet tanks were sent into Budapest to crush the uprising.

• November 11: Proclamation that this uprising had been destroyed by Janos Kadar, who was backed by the Soviet Union.

• Though Soviet containment will continue to try to break down the rebellion, the exploitation and domination that had been under Stalin’s rule did not return.

• Soviet Union is seen as the winner of this conflict after November 4th.

The Hungarian Revolution: Connections to the Cold War +
Long-Term Effects

• The Hungarian Revolution highlighted the ideological differences between the East and the West (communism vs. freedom & democracy), along with what greed for power can accomplish. This is a big theme in the Cold War and can be seen during the arms race and other events.

• This also exposed some of the brutality of the Soviet Union (more noticeable when not fighting on the same side, like in WWII), causing the West to become more anti-Soviet.

• This reinstated Soviet dominance over the countries they occupied in Eastern Europe, showing the USSR’s commitment to their sphere of influence.

• This fueled Soviet paranoia, leading to even stricter control in Eastern Europe. This influenced events like Prague Spring (1968), which would then lead to the Brezhnev Doctrine.

• Brezhnev Doctrine (1968): Foreign policy from Soviet leader calling on the USSR to intervene, including militarily, when socialist rule was threatened in other countries. The Hungarian Revolution was an early indication of Soviet plans to justify military interventions.

• The limits of the U.S. policy of containment were exposed when no direct military actions were taken in response to the Hungarian Revolution.