Intro to Exercise Science - Final Exam Review

all chapters and lectures except for ch 1, acsm (1,2,5), + group discussions + guest lectures (dr. cornell and GSSI sports nutrition)

Guest Lecture - Dr. Cornell

You must have graduated from an accredited university program to be eligible to sit for the licensure exam.

True or False

true

• you need to graduate from an accredited program

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research

Basic Research

• aims to expand the knowledge base by formulating, evaluating, or expanding a theory

• pure or fundamental research

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research

Applied Research

• Aims to solve immediate practical problems.

• Theoretic concepts are tested in real-world situations

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research - 3 primary Forms of Experimental Research

• Longitudinal research

the study of change over time (e.g., detraining)

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research - 3 primary Forms of Experimental Research

• Cross-sectional research

• The collection of data on individuals of different characteristics who represent different aspects being investigated (e.g., age, gender, fitness levels)

• To collect data at once

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research - 3 primary Forms of Experimental Research

• Sequential Research

• The combination of longitudinal and cross-sectional research

• To study several different samples over several years

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research - Designing a research study

• Hypothesis

A proposed explanation for the occurrence of some specified outcome tested through study and experimentation

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research - Designing a research study

• Independent variable

The treatment or experimental variable that is manipulated by the researcher to create an effect on the dependent variable

Ch 2 - Introduction to Research - Designing a research study

• Dependent Variable

A response, behavior, or outcome that a researcher wishes to predict or explain

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

what are the 2 systems that make up the Nervous System

Central Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Central Nervous System

• Brain

• Spinal Cord

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Peripheral System

• sensory

• motor

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Peripheral System - Motor

Involuntary Action - Automatic (Parasympathetic and Sympathetic —> smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, glands —> effector organs)

Voluntary Action - Somatic (motor neurons —> skeletal neurons —> effector organs)

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

sympathetic and parasympathetic

sympathetic - increase under stress condition

parasympathetic - increase during resting condition

• Sympathetic and parasympathetic systems work via coordinated interaction

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

What is the primary component in the nervous system?

Neurons

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

During exercise,

Sympathetic activity increase or decrease? – Parasympathetic activity increase or decrease? – Heart rate? – Blood pressure?

Sympathetic activity increase

Parasympathetic activity decrease

Heart rate - increase

Blood pressure - increase

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Skeletal muscle fibers are a ____ of fiber

heterogeneous group

• Fibers have distinct contractile and metabolic characteristics

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Speed of Contraction and Resistance to Fatigue :

Type 1 - slow oxidative

speed of contraction: slow

resistance to fatigue: high

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Speed of Contraction and Resistance to Fatigue :

Type IIA - Fast Oxidative

speed of contraction: fast

resistance to fatigue: intermediate

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Speed of Contraction and Resistance to Fatigue :

Type IIB - Fast Oxidative

speed of contraction: fast

resistance to fatigue: low

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

Muscle soreness generally appears when ___

appears 24-48 hours after strenuous exercise and can last up to 72-96 hours

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Delayed-Onset Muscle Soreness (DOMS)

What causes DOMS?

• Muscle injury induced by excessive mechanical force

• Eccentric muscle actions cause greater damage

  • The muscle fibers lengthen when generating force

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

How to increase muscle size

Resistance exercise training can increase muscle size and strength

1) muscle fiber hypertrophy

• increase in the muscle fiber cross-sectional area

2) muscle fiber hyperplasia

• increase in the number of muscle fibers in a muscle

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Possible theories underlying the hyperplasia mechanism

1. The existing fibers are first hypertrophied and then split into more than one fiber.

2. The undifferentiated satellite cells are stimulated to grow into fully developed muscle fibers

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Osteoporosis

• Inadequate levels of physical activity and mineral intake in the diet will increase the risk of developing osteoporosis.

• It can affect any individual regardless of age.

• It is characterized by low bone mineral density

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

What strategies can decrease the risk of developing osteoporosis?

• Maximizing peak bone mass by age 30 years

• Slowing the rate of bone loss over the remaining years of life

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

how to maximize peak bone mass?

−Perform weight bearing exercises (e.g., walking and jogging) −Consume a minimal daily level of calcium

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Bone and Sport and Athletic Performance

The red marrow in bone generates red blood cells.

What stimulates the production of RBC and hemoglobin?

Erythropoietin (EPO)

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

What else can boost RBC production?

Hypoxia

• it promotes gene transcription of EPO, necessary for maturation of RBCS

Ch 3 - systemic approach

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a leading cause of death.

what is the primary CVS in most Americans ?

Coronary artery disease (CAD)

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Atherosclerosis

• It is a disease process whereby cholesterol and blood lipids build up in the arteries.

• It narrows the diameter of vessel and reduces the blood flow to cardiac muscle

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

What happens if blood flow to the heart is reduced to a critical level?

heart attack

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Maximal Oxygen Uptake (VO2Max)

• Maximal amount of oxygen consumed during maximal effort exercise −Critical to endurance performance success

• The capacity of delivering oxygen to the working tissues is one of limiting factors for VO2max.

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Primary Functions of Pulmonary System

Primary functions

• Moving air into and out of the lungs

• Regulation of acid-base balance (pH balance)

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Primary Component of Pulmonary System

Respiratory muscles, airways, and units (alveoli)

• Gas exchange takes place in alveoli

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Exercise-Induced Asthma

Exercise can trigger an asthmatic events (airway constriction & shortness of breath) by immune system response

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Regulation of acid-base balance

• Increase in hydrogen ion concentration (i.e., low pH) leads to the formation of CO2

• The CO2 is exhaled from lungs, which helps keep the body from being too acidic (e.g., high intensity exercise)

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Primary Function of Endocrine System

• Regulation of physiologic function and systems of the body (along with nervous system)

• Hormones can circulate and influence tissues throughout the entire body

• These effects can last for a few seconds to several hours

−Maintaining homeostasis (normal conditions of functioning)

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Endocrine System: Metabolic Syndrome

• Development of insulin resistance increases the risk of heart disease, stroke, and diabetes

• Clustering of metabolic syndrome risk factors

  • High blood pressure

  • High blood glucose

  • Excess fat around the waist

  • Abnormal TG and cholesterol levels

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Immune System and Exercise Training

“J” curve model

−Moderate exercise training can reduce the risk of infection −Excessive amounts of high-intensity training can give an adverse effect

Overtraining syndrome

• A condition whereby too much training results in the maladaptation of body responses

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Energy System - Immediate sources

• ATP and creatine phosphate

• provides energy during the initiation of movement and during high-intensity exercise

Ch 3 - Systemic Approach

Energy Systems and Exercise

 Intensity vs. Duration

Crossover Point

The "crossover point" in energy systems refers to the point during exercise where the body shifts from primarily utilizing fat as fuel to relying more on carbohydrates

Ch 4 - Exercise Physiology

What are Acute responses

Changes in the systems of the body that occur in response to a
single bout of physical activity or exercise

cardiovascular system - increase in HR, stroke volume, cardiac output, blood pressure, and a redirection of blood flow to the working tissues of the body

Pulmonary System - increases in air movement into and out of the lungs and increased blood flow through the lungs

muscular system - increases in force production, utilization and production of energy, and heat production

Endocrine system - increases in the release of epinephrine and norepinephrine

Ch 4 - Exercise Physiology

What are chronic adaptations?

The systems of the body change in response to repeated
regular physical activity and exercise.
- Chronic adaptations to exercise improve functions of the body
while at rest and during exercise

Cardiovascular System - increase in stroke volume and cardiac output, and decrease in HR at the same absolute workload

Pulmonary System - improved air movement into and out of the lungs and increased blood flow through the lungs at the same absolute workload

Muscular System - increase energy production from fat and decreased lactic acid formation at the same absolute workload

Endocrine System - Decreased release of epinephrine and norepinephrine at the same absolute workload

Ch 4 - Exercise Physiology

Should we exercise at low intensity to promote the use of fat as a substrate (i.e., burn fat)?

Answer: No

We should consider the total amount of energy expenditure during the exercise session.

• At moderate (40-60% VO2max) exercise intensities, more total fat could be used

Ch 4 Exercise Physiology

Movement of glucose from the blood into the cell depends on the interaction of what and what

insulin: it is released from pancreas and helps control blood glucose

GLUT4: Skeletal muscle specific glucose transport protein 4

Ch 4 Exercise Physiology

muscle control of glucose uptake ; when GLUT4 Raises what happens

• Blood flow to skeletal muscle ↑

• Insulin ↑

• Glucose concentration ↑

• Muscle contraction ↑

Ch 4 - Exercise Physiology

Diabetes Mellitus:

disease condition whereby insulin is dysregulated and blood glucose level is not controlled

Ch 4 - Exercise Physiology

Type 1 Diabetes:

Insufficient insulin is produced by pancreas

Ch 4 - Exercise Physiology

Type 2 Diabetes:

Insulin does not promote the uptake of glucose by the cells

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Diagnostic Testing does what

It helps access the presence of CV or pulmonary disease

• Heart rate, electrical activity of the heart, and blood pressure are measured

Exercise tests help diagnose the presence of heart disease

• During exercise, some hidden problems in the heart can be detected

• Only a medical doctor can provide a medical diagnosis of disease

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Functional Capacity Testing

The information obtained from testing can be used to prescribe an appropriate physical activity and exercise program to improve fitness

• Submaximal or maximal exercise test is used

This testing can be also used to determine whether an individual has normal cardiovascular and pulmonary responses to physical activity and exercise

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Graded Exercise Tests (GXT

Exercise intensity gradually increases from light to maximal exertion or to a pre-determined ending point

• Treadmill or cycle ergometer

• Used in both diagnostic and functional capacity testing

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Submaximal Graded Exercise Tests (GXT)

• It can evaluate the CV, respiratory, and muscular systemic responses to a standard submaximal exercise bout

• It is usually safer than a maximal graded exercise test The submaximal GXT is conducted at an intensity of 70- 80% of the age-predicted maximal HR

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

How to calculate Heart Rate Max?

Heart Rate Max = 220 - age

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

All individuals require a physician’s referral BEFORE exercise testing and/or exercise program - TRUE OR FALSE

True - Certain individuals who are physically inactive and have multiple risk factors for disease require a physician’s referral BEFORE exercise testing and/or exercise program

CH 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

in a clinical setting, what monitors are used?

• Electrocardiograph (ECG): Recordings - An instrument that measures electric potentials on the body surface and generates a record of the electric currents associated with heart muscle activity

• Electronic heart rate monitors are often used for the healthy individuals

CH 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

What is blood Pressure ?

BP is the force exerting pressure against the walls of the blood vessels in the circulation system

CH 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

What is Systolic Pressure?

Systolic blood pressure

• The highest pressure occurs during the contraction phase (systole) of the ventricles

• estimation of the work of the heart

CH 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

What is diastolic pressure?

Diastolic pressure:

• The pressure during the relaxation phase of the heart

• Indirect indication of the ease with which blood flows through the circulatory system

CH 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE)

Commonly used to assess the subjective level of difficulty during exercise

6- no exertion

20 - maximal exertion

CH 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Echocardiography

• it uses sound waves to create a moving picture of the heart

• It allows to see the beating heart and to visualize many of the structures of the heart

• It can be combined with a GTX: “stress echocardiogram”

CH 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

myocardial infarction

• Commonly referred to as a heart attack

• Tissue death occurs when an area of heart muscle is deprived of oxygen

• Decreased blood flow (called ischemia) in the coronary artery is the primary reason

• Chest pain (angina pectoris) is usually accompanied

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Cardiac Arrhythmia

Abnormal heart rhythm and uneven contraction are caused by irregular electrical activity of the atria

• Reduced filling of ventricles

• Decreased delivery of blood to the body

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Coronary Artery Disease - Coronary atherosclerosis

Coronary atherosclerosis

The subsequent narrowing of the opening of the vessel

The reduced blood flow results in cardiac infarction

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Muscular Dystrophy

• inherited diseases

• Progressive wasting of skeletal muscle fibers

Ch 5 - Clinical Exercise Physiology

Arthritis

• Inflammatory joint disease

• Inflammatory responses affect numerous joints and other organ systems

ACSM

Health Related Physical Fitness Components

• cardiovascular endurance

• muscular endurance

• muscular strength

• body composition

• flexibility

ASCM

Skill-related physical fitness components

• agility

• power

• speed

• reaction time

• coordination

• balance

ACSM

minimum guidelines

• all healthy adults aged 18-65 years old should participate in moderate intensity aerobic PA for a minimum of 30 min on a 5 days a week or vigorous intensity aerobic activity for a minimum of 20 min on 3 days a week

• every adult should perform activities that maintain or increase muscular strength and endurance for a minimum of 2 days per week

• because of the dose-response relationship between PA and health, individuals who wish to further improve their fitness, reduce their risk for chronic diseases and disabilities, and/or prevent unhealthy weight gain may benefit by exceeding the minimum recommended amounts of PA.

ACSM

Preparticipation Health Screening

Preparticipation health screening before initiating PA or an exercise program is a two-stage process:

1. The need for medical clearance before initiating or progressing exercise programming is determined using ACSM screening algorithm or PAR-Q+

2. If indicated during screening, medical clearance should be sought from an appropriate healthcare provider

ACSM

Intro to principles of exercise prescription (Ex Rx)

Designed to meet individual health and physical fitness goals

• The principles of exercise prescription (Ex Rx) are intended to exercise professionals in the development of an individually tailored Ex Rx for the apparently healthy adult whose goal is to improve physical fitness and health

ACSM

general considerations of an Exercise Prescription

Reduction in the time spent in sedentary activities is important for the health of both physically active and inactive individuals

Plan to decrease periods of physical inactivity should be included in the Ex Rx

ACSM

FITT-VP principle of exercise prescription

FITT-VP principle of exercise prescription
− Frequency (how often)
− Intensity (how hard)
− Time (duration or how long)
− Type (mode or what kind)
− Total Volume (amount)
− Progression (advancement)

• based on application of existing scientific evidence

• intended as guidelines for apparently healthy adults

ACSM

Musculoskeletal injuries may be reduced by including

by including a warm-up and cool-down, stretching exercises, and gradual progression of volume and intensity

Guest Lecture - Sports Nutrition

summary - carbohydrate

• Glycogen is a major energy source during sprinting as well as overall team sport activity (e.g., basketball).

• Carbohydrate is well known to improve aspects of team sports performance.

• Carbohydrate loading has been shown to increase muscle glycogen levels and improve certain types of aerobic endurance exercise performance.

Guest Lecture - Sports Nutrition

Consequences of dehydration

• Dehydration impairs the ability to remove heat.

• Dehydration increases cardiovascular strain.

• Dehydration increases glycogen usage.

• Dehydration decreases fluid absorption

Guest Lecture - Sports Nutrition

Summary: Protein

• Protein is a critical nutrient for muscle repair and recovery especially for team sport athletes who sustain high amounts of muscle damage.

• Daily amounts vary between athletes but are higher than the RDA.

• Protein should be consumed post-practice, every 3-4 hours throughout the day and before sleep.

• Types of protein should include complete protein sources that are quickly digested and absorbed and rich in leucine (whey and animal products meet all these criteria).

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Motivation + types

Motivation : Complex set of internal and external forces that influence individuals to behave in certain ways

Extrinsic − When individuals engage in a certain behavior to gain some external reward from participation

Intrinsic − When individuals engage in behavior because the individual enjoys the process and gains pleasure and satisfaction from participation

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Arousal

Definition: State of heightened physiologic and psychological activity

• Level is constantly changing depending on the situation and environment

• An individual can interpret a stressor as challenge or threat: Arousal ←→ Anxiety

• Two major models explain the effects of arousal on performance

  • Drive theory

  • Inverted U Hypothesis

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Arousal - Drive theory

• As arousal increases, performance increases in a linear fashion

• Increasing arousal will increase the probability that an individual will select the dominant response (i.e., habit or practiced response) for the situation

• Professional scholars disagree with this linear relationship

  • If an individual becomes too aroused, this may result in a decrease in performance (accuracy)

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Arousal - Inverted U Hypothesis

There is an optimal range of arousal level for the highest performance

• moderate and good is the highest peak of upside down U curve

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Inverted U Hypothesis - Two factors contribute to obtaining optimal levels of arousal and performance

• Task complexity: simple movement vs. complex movement

• Type of task: Fine movement vs. gross movement

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Inverted U Hypothesis - A highly trained athlete can endure a high level of arousal without an adverse effect on performance. The optimal level (performance quality) will be shift to A or B?

will shift to B (higher arousal peak)

• experience and personal factors can affect individual performance

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Anxiety

State of uneasiness and apprehension related to future uncertainties

• Anxiety levels can be reduced by exercise!

  • Acute and chronic exercise & physical activity

  • Aerobic and resistance exercise training

Ch 8 - Exercise and Sport Psychology

Depression

State of general emotional dejection and withdrawal

Physical inactivity is related to higher levels of depression  Exercise can reduce depression!

• Aerobic and resistance exercise training

• Effective for all types of individuals

• Antidepressant effects

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Information Processing

Stimulus recognition

• Collection of information from the environment

Response selection

• Decision on what to do after collecting and processing information

Response programming

• Initiation of an action after a response has been selected

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

How to assess brain activity during information processing?

• To record how quickly an individual responds to a stimulus

• To measure “reaction time” (the time required to make the response)

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Memory

• Retaining and recalling facts, events, impressions, and remembering/recognizing previous experiences

• Multistore memory model

• Encoding - short term sensory store -→ short term memory → long term memory

• Decoding - long term memory → short term memory → short term sensory store

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Practice organization and learning

Practicing-learning paradox

• Practicing the same movement repeatedly may show good practice performance initially, but does NOT enhance learning

• Practicing variations of a movement hinders practice performance but enhances learning

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Contextual interference

the interference that results from practicing several different tasks within the context of a single practice session

ex) A coach could increase the contextual interference by hitting ground balls to the left or right of her if he had been hitting it directly at her

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Summary knowledge of results

Summary knowledge of results – requires completion of several trials of a single skill or movement without receiving any information about performance

• After completion of the trials, knowledge of results about those trials is provided to the individual

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Fading knowledge of results

involves a systematic reduction in the amount of knowledge of results given to an individual during a practice session

As skill proficiency increases, this strategy results in a highly effective practice schedule

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Learning Difficult Skills

• Important for successful participation in exercise, sport, and athletic competition

• Task difficulty

  • The complexity of the motor problem that an individual must resolve to successfully complete a task

  • As the movement skill becomes more challenging, an individual’s performance deteriorates

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

Learning Difficult Skills - Challenge point

• The individual is being optimally challenged to enhance learning of the skill or movement

• The task difficulty beyond this point continues to inhibit performance and begins to inhibit learning

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

General motor control theories − Closed-loop theory

• Sensory information is received by nervous system during movement

• Muscle activity can be altered during performance

• Corrections and alterations in motor performance

Ch 9 - Motor Behavior

General motor control theories − Open-loop theory

• Individuals do NOT receive feedback from joints, proprioceptors, and muscles of the body during movement

• Body movements are completely preplanned before the initiation of the movement

• Due to lack of feedback, this type of system results in faster movements than the closed-loop system

Ch 10 - Biomechanics

Linear motion

It occurs when all points of the body are moving in the same direction at the same speed and are traveling the same distance

Ch 10 - Biomechanics

Angular motion

Most voluntary human movements involve the rotation of a body part around an imaginary axis of rotation that passes through the center of the joint to which the body part attaches

Whole body rotation

Examples: Shoulder press, Knee extension exercise

Ch 10 - Biomechanics

Spatial reference systems

• Used to quantitatively describe the movement of humans to standardize the measurements

• Cartesian coordinate system is the most commonly used system