Schachter and Singer

Identify two features of the sample used in the Schachter study. [2]

-(predominantly) volunteers
-n = 184
-Males
-Taking introductory psychology class
-University of Minnesota
-Students/undergraduates
-Gained course credit (for participation)

One of the questions that the participants were asked about their mood was 'How good or happy would you say you feel at present?' Explain one reason why this question may not measure mood accurately. [2]

What people say they will do on a questionnaire may not 'mirror' their
behaviour (1 mark) therefore just because they said they were happy or
good does not mean that is what they actually felt (1 mark)

It is a subjective measure (1 mark); participants will interpret happy/good in different ways (1 mark)

Describe what is meant by the two-factor theory of emotion. [4]

One factor is the physiological arousal of a person (1)
The other factor is the cognition that allows a person to make sense of a
situation (1)
So, when someone becomes aroused, they look to the environment for cues
to help explain how they are feeling. (1)
Therefore, emotional experiences are a combination of physiology and
cognition (1)

Outline how one result from this study supports the two-factor theory of emotion. [2]

The Epi Ign/Epi Mis groups scored higher on their emotional states
compared to the Epi Inf (1 mark).
This showed that they were more susceptible to the stooge's mood as they had no explanation of their emotions (compared to Epi Inf who did) (1 mark).

Describe at least two strengths of the Schachter and Singer study. [5]

Quantitative data acquired through questionnaires provides data that is easy to analyze and compare, increasing reliability.

The use of a control group (misinformed) and double-blind study, where the stooge participant did not know which condition a participant was in contributes to internal validity.

Highly standardized procedures (scripted instructions for stooge) increases validity by making it easier for other researches to confirm results.

Describe at least two weaknesses of the Schachter and Singer study. [5]

The quantitative data gleaned from the questionnaire while easy to analyze and compare was limited - no evaluation was made of the participants baseline emotions before starting, and questionnaires provide limited opportunity for elaborating on feelings.

The sample included only men, which reduces the generalisability of the results, as men may experience emotions differently than women.

Not only that, but the experimental conditions were very different than how people feel emotions in real life. They do not usually experience physiological arousal with no warning or explanation. This reduces the external or ecological validity.

Also, epinephrine is known to affect people differently (for example, 5 participants experienced no physiological effects), so this introduces participant variables that may effect the dependent variable.

Participants were deceived about both the aims and procedure of the study as well as the injection they received, making it impossible for them to provide true informed consent.

The debate about individual and situational explanations relates to the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). Outline what is meant by this debate. Include one example from the individual explanation and one example from the situational explanation from the study by Schachter and Singer. [4]

The individual side refers to behaviours from factors within the person
(dispositional/personality) (1)
The situational side refers to behaviour from factors in the external
environment. (1)

Some participants may have joined in participating because they are extroverted, or because of the stooge's action.

Outline how the category of 'initiates new activity' was operationalised in this study. (2)

"Creative euphoria" - a behavior outside of the stooge's routine, not seen by the observer

Name one behaviour shown by a participant in this study that was categorised as 'initiates new activity'. [1]

-(Threw) open the window
-Laughing
-Hula hooped (on neck and leg)

Describe the results from the Activity Index in the euphoria condition for the Epinephrine Informed (Epi Inf) group compared to the Epinephrine Misinformed (Epi Mis) groups. You must use data in your answer. [3]

The EPI-INF scored lower with a score of 12 compared to the EPI-MIS with
a score of 22. (3)

The EPI-INF scored lower on the index compared to the EPI-MIS OR
The EPI-MIS scored higher on the index compared to the EPI-INF. (2)

The EPI-MIS scored the higher/The EPI-INF scored lower. (1 - no COMPARISON/naming of the other group)

Two stooges were used to manipulate emotional states. One of these stooges attempted to manipulate euphoria. Name the other emotional state manipulated in the Schachter study. [1]

Anger

Name two categories an observer used to code the participants' behaviour during the euphoria conditions in the Schachter study. [2]

1 each:
-Joins in activity
-Initiates new activity
-Ignores stooge
-Watches stooge

Outline one conclusion from this study. [2]

-There are two factors involved when we experience emotions: a physiological/biological one and a psychological/cognitive one. [2]
-The two-factory theory of emotions is supported by the results. [1]

Mark wants to replicate the Epinephrine Informed (Epi Inf) condition from the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) and needs your help. Suggest instructions that Mark could use to replicate this part of the study, focusing specifically on instructions for the Epi Inf group. [2]

-You must also tell them/reveal that there may be side effects; (1)
-Tell them that they are short-lived; (1)
-Tell them they will last about 15 minutes or so; (1)
-Tell them that their hand will begin to shake/heart will pound/face may get
warm; (1)

Adelia wants to replicate the Epinephrine Misinformed (Epi Mis) condition from the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) and needs your help. Suggest instructions that Adelia could use to replicate this part of the study, focusing specifically on instructions for the Epi Mis group. [2]

-You must tell them/reveal that there may be side effects;
-Tell them that they are short-lived;
-Tell them they will last about 15 minutes or so;
-Tell them that their feet will feel numb/itching sensation/might get a slight headache;

Describe three instructions given to ALL participants in the Schachter and Singer study before receiving an injection.

1 mark each:
-You must tell the participant that the study is about how vitamins affect vision [1]
-You must tell them that a vitamin compound/Suproxin is being assessed; (1)
-You must then gain their permission to be injected (with Suproxin); (1)
-You must tell them that the injection is mild/harmless; (1)

Maria wants to replicate the Epinephrine Ignorant (Epi Ign) condition from the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) and needs your help. Suggest instructions that Maria could use to replicate this part of the study, focusing specifically on instructions for the Epi Ign group. [2]

-You must not tell them about any side effects;
-You must then leave the room;
-You must remind the physician to re-iterate no side effects/harmless/mild;

Describe two independent variables from the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). [4]

-The emotional situation (1 mark)
-anger or euphoria (1 mark);
-The injection information (1 mark); misinformed/informed/ignorant/placebo (1 mark for any 2 of these)

Explain two differences between the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion) and the study by Canli et al. (brain scans and emotions). [8]

They used different sexes as participants. (1) Schachter and Singer used 184 male students (1) from the University of Minnesota (1) whereas Canli only used 10 females who were all right-handed. (1)

They used different experimental designs. (1) Schachter and Singer used independent measures (1), with each participant being part of only one condition. Canli used repeated measures (1), with each participant exposed to all 96 images. (1)

Two friends, Lok and Hiruni, are discussing the ethics of the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). Lok thinks the study is ethical but Hiruni thinks it is unethical. Explain one reason why Lok is correct and one reason why Hiruni is correct, using evidence from this study. [6]

Lok
-Data collected was kept confidential (1 mark).
-No individual data was published
(1 mark) as all we know is that there were male students from the University of Minnesota (1 mark).
-Participants were debriefed at the end and informed about the true nature of the experiment.

Hiruni
-The participants were deliberately deceived (1 mark), denying them the opportunity to give informed consent. (1 mark)
They were told the wrong information whilst getting the injection (1 mark).
-For example one group was told
that they would experience numb feet/get a headache after the injection
(1 mark)/told it was Suproxin for vision (alternative 1 mark).

(a) Identify two behaviours from participants in the euphoria condition that would be coded as 'joins in activity'. [2]

-Made or flew paper airplanes;
-Threw paper basketballs;
-Hula hooped;
-Shoots paper with rubber band;
-At a pile of folders]

Describe two aims of the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion). [4]

-To test out the two factor theory of emotion [1], which says that an emotional experience comes from a cognitive label and some physiological arousal [1]
-To test whether a person, if experiencing physiological arousal with no explanation, will look to their environment for cues or a cognitive label [2]

Explain whether each guideline below was broken in the study by Schachter and Singer (two factors in emotion): [2 marks each]
• confidentiality
• debriefing
• deception
• protection

Confidentiality
-Not broken - All we know about participants is that they were male students from the University of Minnesota/only the doctors had access to their medical records

Debriefing
-After the study was completed, the researchers explained the deception of the injection/stooge/answered any questions

Deception
-This guideline was broken as they were told the wrong information whilst getting the injection, though the researcher's actions were justified by reducing demand characteristics.

Projection
-Not broken: Injection was given by a medical professional and health records were screened first to ensure no adverse effects.
-Broken: Given an injection which may have caused physical/psychological pain.

Outline what the participants in the 'Epinephrine Ignorant (EPI IGN)' group were told during their injection. [2 marks]

-They were told that the injection/drug was mild/harmless;
-They were told that there were no side effects.

Describe the results from the Activity Index measure in the Euphoria condition for the 'Epinephrine Ignorant (EPI IGN)' group compared to the 'Epinephrine Misinformed (EPI MIS)' group. You must use data in your answer. [3]

The average score on the Activity Index was higher for the Epi Mis (22) compared to the Epi Ign (18).

This means the Epi Mis group joined in more with the stooge/were more euphoric.

Describe the psychological theory that was being tested in the Schachter study. [3]

-They were testing the theory that we experience emotions as an interaction between physiological and cognitive factors. (1)
-When someone experiences an emotion, they look for a cue to label the emotion (1)
-Cognitions arising from a situation can be interpreted via past experiences and this allows us to understand/label the
emotion (1)

Identify the sampling technique used in the Schachter study. [1]

Volunteer/self-select

Describe how the sample was recruited in the Schachter study. [3]

-Students in an Intro to Psych class
-Offered extra credit
-Screened and cleared through Student Health Services (to make sure they didn't have heart conditions or other issues that would be dangerous with epinephrine)

Outline one strength of the sampling technique used in the Schachter study. [2]

-Volunteers tend to be more motivated/less likely to drop out. (1)
-Therefore, participants are more likely to accept the injection. (1)
-Volunteers implicitly give consent to participate (though in this case they were deceived about the true nature of the injection). (1)