AP Psychology - Unit Zero: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

Flashcards covering research methods, statistical foundations, distributions, experimental design, and ethical guidelines for AP Psychology Unit Zero.

Psychology

The scientific study of the mind and behavior.

AP Psychology Exam: Scientific Foundations Weight

$$10\%-14\%$$

Confirmation bias

The tendency to favor information that confirms existing beliefs.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

Overconfidence

The tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

Empirical evidence

Information acquired by observation or experimentation.

Scientific method

A systematic approach to research where a problem is identified, relevant data is gathered, a hypothesis is formulated from these data, and the hypothesis is empirically tested.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

Falsifiability

The capacity of a research hypothesis or outcome to be disproved by experimental results.

Peer review

A process by which research or publication proposals are evaluated by a group of experts in the appropriate field.

Replication

The action of repeating a study using the same methods to see if the original results can be consistently reproduced.

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability is the consistency of a research study or measuring test, while validity is the extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.

American Psychological Association (APA)

A professional organization representing psychologists in the United States.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative data

Quantitative data consists of numerical measurements of quantities, whereas qualitative data consists of descriptive information from sources like interviews or photographs.

Likert scale

A psychometric scale commonly used in questionnaires, and the most widely used scale in survey research.

Structured interview

A quantitative research method where the interviewer follows a set sequence of questions.

Wording effect

The effect that question phrasing and order have on survey data.

Social desirability bias

A tendency to give socially approved answers to questions about oneself.

Naturalistic observation

Observing subjects in their natural environment without manipulation or control. Strength: allows observation of behavior in natural settings. Weaknesses: limited control over variables and potential observer bias.

Case study

An in-depth study of a single person, group, event, or community. Strength: provides detailed qualitative insight into specific cases. Weaknesses: may not be generalizable and cannot establish causality.

Survey technique

A research method involving questionnaires to collect data from a sample. Strengths: efficient and economical for large groups. Weaknesses: potential response biases and leading questions.

Correlational research

A type of non-experimental research method that examines the relationship between two or more variables to determine association using statistical analysis.

Third variable problem

A form of confounding in which an unmeasured third variable leads to a mistaken causal relationship between two observed variables.

Experimental method

A methodology uniquely capable of establishing cause-and-effect relationships by manipulating one variable and controlling/randomizing the rest.

Correlation coefficient ($r$)

A statistical index ranging from $-1$ to $+1$. Values close to zero indicate a weak correlation, while values close to $-1$ and $+1$ indicate a strong correlation.

Scatterplot with no correlation

A graphical display with scattered points and no directional line, representing $r = 0$.

Positive vs. Negative correlation

In a positive correlation, both variables move in the same direction (direct relationship). In a negative correlation, variables move in opposite directions (inverse relationship).

Single-blind vs. Double-blind study

In a single-blind study, participants do not know whether they are in the control or experimental group but researchers do. In a double-blind study, neither participants nor experimenters know who receives a particular treatment.

Placebo condition

A condition in which treatment is not administered but the subject believes that it is administered.

Sample vs. Representative sample

A sample is any subset of individuals from a larger population used for research. A representative sample accurately reflects the characteristics of the population as a whole.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Sample bias

A bias that occurs when a sample is collected in such a way that some members of the intended population are less likely to be included than others.

Generalizability

The extent to which the results of a study can be generalized or extended to others.

Independent vs. Dependent variables

The independent variable is manipulated or controlled by the researcher, whereas the dependent variable is the variable tested and measured in an experiment.

Confounding variable

A variable that influences both the dependent variable and independent variable, causing a spurious association.

Operational definitions

Specifically defining a variable in terms of how it is measured or manipulated in a study.

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups.

Experimenter bias

A process where the scientists performing the research influence the results in order to portray a certain outcome.

Descriptive vs. Inferential statistics

Descriptive statistics summarize the data collected in a study, whereas inferential statistics allow one to make predictions and inferences about a population based on a sample of data.

Calculations for Measures of Central Tendency and Range

Mean: Add all numbers and divide by the count. Median: Arrange numbers in order and find the middle number. Mode: Identify the number appearing most frequently. Range: Subtract the smallest number from the largest number.

Normal curve standard deviations (68-95-99.7 Rule)

$68\%$ of data falls within 1 standard deviation, $95\%$ within 2 standard deviations, and $99.7\%$ within 3 standard deviations of the mean.

Standard deviation

A measure of the amount of variation or dispersion in a set of values.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in its frequency distribution that are equal to or lower than it.

Bimodal distribution

A distribution type represented by a curve with two distinct peaks or modes in the frequency of occurrences.

Statistical significance

A measurement indicating if the result of an experiment is probably true or just happened by chance, checking if findings would occur rarely when assuming no special effect.

Effect size

A measure of how big the impact or effect of something is in an experiment.

Regression to the mean

The phenomenon that if a variable is extreme on its first measurement, it will tend to be closer to the average on its second measurement.

Positive skew

A distribution where more numbers in a list are on the lower side, but a few really high numbers stretch the average higher.

Negative skew

A distribution illustrated by a graph where extreme lower scores stretch the left tail.

Meta-analysis

A statistical analysis that combines the results of multiple scientific studies.

Institutional Review Board (IRB)

A committee that reviews and approves research involving human subjects, ensuring that ethical standards are met.

Informed consent vs. Informed assent

Informed consent is permission granted with full knowledge of possible risks and benefits by a competent adult participant. Informed assent is agreement to participate given by a minor or party unable to grant legal consent.

Confidentiality

The requirement that private or sensitive information is not disclosed without the consent of the person who provided it.

Deception and Confederates

Deception is misleading or wrongly informing participants about a study's true nature. Confederates are individuals who appear to be regular participants but are actually part of the research team.

Debriefing

Providing participants in a study with a full explanation of the study after its completion, including the purpose and any deceptions used.